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a. 


TWENTY    YEARS'    RESIDENCE 

AMONG 

THE    PEOPLE    OF    TURKEY: 

BULGARIANS,  GREEKS,  ALBANIANS,  TURKS,  AND  ARMENIANS. 

BY 

J±    CONSUL'S    DAUGHTEE     A-NID    WIFE. 

EDITED   BY   STANLEY   LANE   POOLE. 


DEDICATED  (BY  PERMISSION)  TO 

THE    MARCHIONESS    OF    SALISBURY, 

BY  HER  GRATEFUL  SERVANT,  THE  AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 

No  one  who  has  talked  with  many  people 
on  the  Eastern  Question  can  have  failed  to 
remark  the  wide  difference  of  opinion  held 
on  things  which  ought  to  be  matters  of  cer- 
tainty, and  on  which  two  opinions  ought  to 
be  impossible.  This  divergence  of  view  is 
only  a  very  natural  consequence  of  the  want 
of  any  book  of  authority  on  the  subject. 
How  is  one  to  learn  what  manner  of  men 
these  Bulgarians  and  Greeks  of  Turkey  real- 
ly are  ?  Hitherto  our  information  has  been 
chiefly  obtained  from  newspaper  correspond- 
ents :  and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe 
that  the  nature  of  their  selected  information 
depends  upon  the  tendency  of  the  paper. 
There  have,  of  course,  been  notable  excep- 
tions to  this  common  rule  of  a  party-con- 
science ;  the  world  of  journalists  is  but  now 
lamenting  the  untimely  death  of  one  of  its 
most  distinguished  members,  with  whose 
name  honor  and  truth  and  indefatigable 
thoroughness  must  ever  be  associated.  But 
granting  the  honesty  and  impartiality  of  a 
correspondent,  allowing  the  accuracy  of  his 
report  of  what  he  has  seen,  it  must  be  con- 
ceded that  his  opportunities -for  observation 
are  short  and  hurried,  that  he  judges  almost 
solely  from  the  immediate  present,  and  that 
by  the  nature  of  his  profession  he  is  seldom 
able  to  make  a  very  long  or  intimate  study 
of  a  people's  character.  One  accepts  his  re- 
ports as  the  evidence  of  an  eye-witness  ;  but 
one  does  not  necessarily  pledge  one's  self  to 
his  deductions.  For  the  former  task  he  has 
every  necessary  qualification  :  for  the  latter 
he  may  have  none,  and  he  probably  has  not 


the  most  important.  Especially  unsafe  is  it 
to  trust  to  estimates  of  nations  formed  hastily 
on  insufficient  experience  in  the  midst  of 
general  disorder,  such  as  that  in  which  many 
summary  verdicts  have  lately  been  composed. 

But  if  newspaper  correspondents  are  placed 
at  some  disadvantage,  what  can  be  said  for 
those  well-assured  travellers  who  pay  a  three 
months'  visit  to  Turkey,  spend  the  time 
pleasantly  at  Pera,  or  perhaps  at  the  country- 
houses  of  some  Pashas,  and  then  consider 
themselves  qualified  to  judge  the  merits  of 
each  class  in  each  nationality  of  the  mixed 
inhabitants  of  the  land.  It  is  unpleasant  to 
have  to  say  it ;  but  it  is  well  known  that 
scarcely  a  single  book  upon  Turkey  is  based 
upon  a  much  longer  experience  than  of  three 
months. 

In  this  dearth  of  trustworthy  information, 
it  was  with  no  little  interest  that  I  learnt  that 
an  English  lady,  who  had  lived  for  a  great 
part  of  her  life  in  various  provinces  of  Euro- 
pean and  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  whose  linguis- 
tic powers  perfected  by  experience  enabled 
her  to  converse  equally  with  Greeks,  Turks, 
and  Bulgarians  as  one  of  themselves,  had 
formed  a  collection  of  notes  on  the  people  of 
Turkey  —  on  their  national  characteristics, 
the  way  they  live,  their  manners  and  cus- 
toms, education,  religion,  their  aims,  and 
ambitions.  In  any  case  the  observations  of 
one  who  had  for  more  than  twenty  years  en- 
joyed such  exceptional  advantages  must  be 
valuable.  Of  the  opportunities  of  the  Author 
there  could  be  as  little  doubt  as  of  her  con- 
scientious accuracy  in  recording  her  experi- 
ence. The  only  question  was  not  the  quality 
but  the  quantity  of  the  information.    But  in 


this  the  manuscript  surpassed  all  expecta- 
tions. Every  page  teemed  with  details  of 
life  and  character  entirely  novel  to  all  but 
Eastern  travellers.  Every  subject  connected 
with  the  people  of  Turkey  qpemed  to  be  ex- 
haustively treated,  and  it  was  rarely  that  any 
need  for  more  ample  information  was  felt. 

In  editing  what,  as  I  have  had  nothing  to 
do  with  the  matter  of  it.  I  may  without  van- 
ity call  the  most  valuable  work  on  the  people 
of  Turkey  that  has  yet  appeared,  I  have 
strictly  kept  in  view  the  principle  laid  down 
by  the  Author — that  the  book  was  to  be  a 
collection  of  facts,  not  .a  vehicle  for  party 
views  on  the  Eastern  Question,  nor  a  recipe 
for  the  "harmonious  arrangement  of  South- 
eastern Europe.  Politically  the  book  is  en- 
tirely colorless.  It  was  felt  that  thus  only 
could  it  commend  itself  to  both,  or  rather  all, 
the  disputing  parties  on  the  question,  and 
that  only  by  delicately  avoiding  the  suscep- 
tible points  of  each  party  could  the  book  at- 
tain its  end— of  generally  imparting  a  certain 
amount  of  sound  information  on  the  worst- 
known  subject  of  the  day. 

The  reader,  therefore,  must  not  expect  to 
find  here  a  defence  of  Turkish  rule  nor  yet 
an  attack  thereon  :  he  will  only  find  an  ac- 
count of  how  the  Turks  do  rule,  with  a  few 
incidental  illustrations  scattered  throughout 
the  book.  Comment  is,  as  a  rule,  eschewed 
as  superfluous  and  insulting  to  the  intelli- 
gence of  the'reader.  Still  less  must  he  look 
for  any  expression  of  opinion  on  the  wisdom 
or  folly  of  the  policy  of  Her  Majesty's  Gov- 
ernment. All  these  things  are  apart  from 
the  aim  of  the  work.  It  is  wished  to  provide 
the  data  necessary  to  the  formation  of  any 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


■worthy  views  on  the  many  subdivisions,  of 
the  Eastern  Question,  It  is  not  wished  to 
point  the  moral.  'On.ce  convejrsiCnl  With  tin- 
actual  state  of  the  people  of  Turkey,  onoq 
knowing  how  fhey:]ivte;v.].at  aj«  i heir  y4r.tues( 
and  vices,  what  I  their,  alma"  and'  aiKbii 
and  it  is  easy  for  any  rational  man  to  draw 
his  conclusions  ;  easy  to  criticise  favorably 
or  otherwise  according  to  the  merits  of  the 
•use  the  policy  of  the  British  Government 
towards  Turkey  and  towards  Greece,  to  de- 
cide whether  after  all  the  supposed  rising  in 
Bulgaria  (about  which  little  is  said  here,  be- 
cause everything  has  already  been  well  said) 
was  ever  a  rising  at  all  ;  whether  the  Turks 
are  or  are  not  incapable  of  the  amenities 
which  many  believe  them  then  to  have  in- 
dulged in  ;  whether  the  Bulgarians  are 
friendly  to  Russia,  or  are  really  the  ver/hum- 
ble  servants  of  the  Porte  ;  in  short,  whether 
half  the  questions  which  have  for  two  years 
been  the  subject  of  perpetual  contention  ad- 
mit of  debate  at  all. 

The  book  has  been  divided  into  four  parts. 
In  the  first,  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
various  races  of  Turkey  are  sketched.  Very 
little  is  said  about  their  history,  for  it  is  not 
the  history  but  the  present  state — or  rather 
the  state  just  before  the  war — of  the  people 
(hat  is  the  subject  of  the  book.  But  the 
Author  has  tried  to  bring  home  to  the  reader 
the  social  condition  and  the  national  charac- 
ter of  their  different  races.  The  Bulgarians, 
Greeks,  Albanians,  Turks,  Armenians,  and 
Jews  are  in  turn  described,  and  the,  for  the 
time,  scarcely  less  important  Circassians, 
with  the  Tatars  and  Gypsies,  have  their 
chapter. 

In  the  second  part?  the  tenure  of  land  in 
Turkey  and  the  state  of  the  small  peasant 
farmers  are  explained,  and  an  account  is 
given  of  houses  and  hovels  in  Turkey,  in- 
cluding that  most  superb  of  Turkish  houses, 
the  Seraglio  of  the  Sultan,  to  which  with  its 
inmates  a  very  detailed  notice  is  devoted  ; 
and  the  part  ends  with  an  account  of  Munici- 
pality and  Police  in  Turkey,  together  with 
the  kindred  subject  of  Brigandage. 

The  third  part  is  occupied  with  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  races.  Pew  things 
give  such  an  insight  into  the  character  of  a 
people  as  a  study  of  their  customs,  and  it  is 
believed  that  these  chapters  on  the  extraordi- 
nary ceremonies  employed  in  Turkey  on  the 
occasion  of  a  birth  or  marriage,  or  a  death, 
the  dress,  food,  amusements,  of  the  Greeks, 
Bulgarians,  Turks,  and  Armenians  will  prove 
of  as  much  value  as  interest.  The  fact,  for 
example,  that  in  many  parts  of  Bulgaria  the 
weddings  take  place  not  in  the  church  but 
in  the  cellar  of  the  bridegroom's  house  speaks 
volumes  on  the  insecurity  of  a  woman's  per- 
son while  Turkish  governors  rule  in  Bulga 
rian  towns.  The  custom  of  the  Bulgarian 
bridegroom  flinging  a  halter  over  his  bride's 
neck  and  dragging  her  into  his  house  is  an 
interesting  relic  of  capture,  and  the  subse- 
quent knocking  of  the  bride's  head  against 
the  wall  as  a  warning  against  infidelity  illus- 
trates the  general  chastity  of  the  people.  The 
indecent  exhibitions,  again,  at  Turkish  wed- 
dings help  to  explain  the  want  of  refinement 
and  womanly  feeling  among  Turkish  ladies. 
The  ceremonies  of  the  Greeks  are  interesting 
from  another  point  of  view,  inasmuch  as  very 
many  of  them  are  identical  with  those  of  the 
ancient  Greeks. 

The  last  part  is  devoted  to  the  education, 
superstition,  and  religion  of  the  people  of 
Turkey.  It  is  here  that  we  get  to  the  root  of 
Turkish  manners  ;  for  we  see  how  the  Turk 
is  brought  up,  how  he  learns  the  vices  that 
have  become  identified  with  the  thought  of 
his  race,  how  he  remains,  in  spite  even  of  a 
western  education,  deeply  imbued  with  super- 
stition, and  finally  how  he  loses  all  the  energy 
of  the  old  Othmanli  character  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  fatal  doctrine  of  Kjsmet.  The 
chapters  on  Education  are  among  the  most 
valuable  in  the  book  ;  whilst  those  on  Re- 
ligion will  serve  to  explain  some  of  the  diffi- 


culties that  beset  the  proper  adjustment  of 
affairs  in  Southern  Europe. 

The  study  of  the  facts  thus  brought  together 
points  to  a  considerable  modification  of  the 
views  commonly  entertained  with  regard  to 
the  characters  of  the  peoples  of  Turkey.  The 
Author's  long  experience  leaves  no  doubt  of 
the  vast  superiority  of  the  Greeks  to  the 
other  races  ;  yet  there  is  no  people  that  one 
is  more  accustomed  to  hear  spoken  of  with 
distrust  and  even  contempt.  The  Greeks 
are  commonly  charged  with  a  partiality  for 
sharp  practice,  with  intolerable  vanity  ;  their 
character  is  summed  up  as  petty.  There  is 
always  a  grain  of  truth  in  a  calumny : 
when  plenty  of  mud  is  thrown  some  of  it 
sticks,  not  because  of  the  quantity  of  the  mud, 
but  because  there  is  sure  to  be  an  adhesive 
sympathy  with  some  part  of  the  object  of 
the  attack.  The  Greeks  have  in  some  degree 
laid  themselves  open  to  these  charges.  It 
was  very  unwise  of  them  to  take  the  first 
rank  as  merchants  in  the  East,  and  thus 
arouse  the  jealousy  of  the  merchants  of  all 
European  nations,  whom  they  have  eclipsed 
by  their  superior  business  capacities.  Envy 
will  pick  holes  anywhere,  but  it  is  especially 
easy  to  criticise  the  customs  of  a  merchant 
class.  Mercantile  morality  all  over  the  world 
is  a  thing  of  itself,  not  generally  understanded 
of  the  people.  But  there  is  nothing  to  show 
that  the  Greek  merchants  are  less  scrupulous 
than  the  rest,  though  their  temptations  are 
infinitely  greater.  If  a  little  sharp  business 
is  said  to  be  permissible,  and  even  perhaps 
necessary,  at  Liverpool,  for  instance,  it  is 
d  fortiori  essential  in  Turkey.  It  is  a  per- 
fectly well-understood  principle  that  in  Tur- 
key, where  everything  is  done  by  bribery 
and  corruption,  a  merchant,  unless  he  wishes 
to  be  ruined,  must  steer  a  somewhat  oblique 
course.  So  long  as  the  late  Turkish  rule  ex- 
tended over  Greek  subjects,  it  was  necessary 
to  do  in  Turkey  as  the  Turks  do.  French 
and  English  merchants  sin  as  much  as  the 
Greeks  in  this  manner ;  but  the  superior 
commercial  ability  of  the  Greeks  and  their 
consequent  success  have  drawn  on  them  the 
whole  evil  repute.  It  is  not  that  the  Greeks 
cheat  more  than  other  commercial  nations  : 
it  is  merely  that  they  make  more  money  on 
the  same  amount  of  cheating.     Ilineillm  ira>! 

The  Greeks,  again,  are  certainly  conceited, 
and  with  excellent  reason.  It  would  be 
absurd  to  expect  anything  else.  They  are 
but  newly  freed  ;  after  centuries  of  Ottoman 
tyranny,  followed  by  a  generation  of  Bava- 
rian despotism,  they  have  at  last  been  allowed 
to  enjoy  some  fifteen  years  of  freedom.  Even 
under  the  stiff  court  of  George,  but  much 
more  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  they  have 
made  prodigious  progress.  Having  worked 
out  their  own  freedom,  they  have  been  mak- 
ing themselves  fit  for  freedom.  From  craven 
slaves  of  the  Turk  they  have  become  a  lib- 
erty-loving people.  Their  thoughts  have 
been  casting  back  to  the  noble  ancestry  which 
they  claim  as  their  own,  and  looking  onward 
to  the  great  future  that  is  in  store  for  them. 
They  have  measured  themselves  intellectually 
with  the  rest  of  Europe  and  have  not  been 
worsted.  They  have  spent  the  last  twenty 
years  in  the  work  of  self -education,  and  so 
successful  have  been  their  efforts  that  it  is 
well  known  that  no  nation  can  compare  with 
Greece  in  the  general  education  of  its  people 
— that  to  Greece  alone  cau  be  applied  the 
ambiguous  taunt  that  she  is  over-educated. 

All  these  things  are  legitimate  subjects  of 
pride.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  Greeks  are 
vain  of  their  adopted  ancestors  ;  no  marvel 
that  they  are  proud  of  their  keen  wits  and 
facile  intelligence.  They  have  formed  a  justly 
high  estimate  of  their  national  worth,  and 
are  justly  proud  of  the  progress  they  have 
already  made,  and  they  take  no  pains  to  con- 
ceal it.  Their  faults  are  only  exaggerations 
of  national  virtues,  the  outcome  of  the  reac- 
tion from  a  long  servitude  ;  they  are  the 
necessary  but  temporary  result  of  the  circum- 
stances.    A  little  time  for  development,  a 


!  closer  association  with  the  other  powers  of 
Europe,  and  a  worthier  trust  on  the  part  of 
these,  and  the  Greeks  will  lose  their  blem- 
ishes of  youth  ;  conceit  will  be  toned  down 
to  a  proper  pride,  and  high  intelligence  will 
no  longer  be  called  over-cleverness.  The  na- 
tion has  marched  steadily  forward  in  the  lit- 

|  tie  time  it  has  been  free  ;  it  has  made  great 

'  steps  in  educating  itself  and  in  spreading 
knowledge  among  its  members  still  subject  to 
the  alien  ;  it  has  shown  itself  able  to  govern 
itself,  even  to  restrain  itself  under  terrible 
provocation  when  there  was  much  to  gain 
and  little  that  could  be  lost.  If  it  is  given 
fair  play,  the  time  may  yet  come  when  a 
seventh  Great  power  shall  arise  in  Europe, 
when  the  Greeks  shall  again  rule  in  Byzanti- 
um, and  Europe  shall  know  that  the  name 
of  Hellenes  is  still  a  sacred  name. 

The  Author's  account  of  the  Bulgarians 
differs  little  from  the  ordinary  opinion,  ex- 
cept on  one  important  point.  She  describes 
them  as  honest  hard-working  peasants,  rather 
slow  and  stupid,  but  excellent  laborers.  But 
she  absolutely  denies  the  ferocious  character 
ascribed  to  them  by  some  writers.  Every  one 
knows  that  they  exacted  a  terrible  vengeance 
from  the  Turks,  and  no  man  of  spirit  can 
blame  them  for  it  ;  though  it  is  much  to  be 
regretted  that,  if  the  accounts  be  true,  they 
carried  their  revenge  to  the  length  of  Turkish 
barbarity.  But  this  was  an  exceptional  time  : 
it  has  had  its  parallel  in  most  nations,  as 
those  who  remember  the  feeling  in  England 
at  the  time  of  the  Indian  mutiny  can  wit- 
ness. As  a  rule  the  Bulgarian  is,  on  the  con- 
trary, rather  too  tame.  He  is  a  very  domes- 
tic animal,  lives  happily  with  his  family, 
keeps  generally  sober,  enjoys  his  dance  on 
the  common  on  feast-days,  and  goes  with 
perfect  willingness  and  satisfaction  to  his  . 
daily  work  in  the  fields  or  at  the  rose-harvest. 
He  is  an  admirable  agricultural  laborer,  with 
a  stolidity  more  than  Teutonic,  without  the 
Teuton's  energy.  Yet  these  Bulgarians  seem 
to  have  a  good  deal  of  sound  common  sense, 
and  show  many  of  the  qualities  necessary  in 
a  people  that  is  to  govern  itself.  It  has 
hitherto  submitted  with  curious  tranquillity 
to  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  the  Sultan  has  prob- 
ably had  few  less  ill-affected  servants  than 
the  Bulgarians.  On  the  other  hand,  it  seems 
that  the  Bulgarians  entertain  a  very  decided 
hostility  to  Russia,  an  enmity  second  only  to 
their  hatred  for  the  Greeks. 

The  third  important  element  in  the  future 
of  South-East  Europe  is  the  Turks.  Of  them 
it  is  not  necessary  to  say  much  :  most 
people  are  fairly  enlightened  as  to  the  m;m- 

\  ners  and  rule  of  the  Turk,  and  the  Author 
has  intentionally  avoided  crowding  her  pages 
with  Turkish  atrocities  :  they  are  all  very 
much  alike,  and  they  are  not  pleasant  read- 
ing. The  official  classes  meet  with  scant 
respect  at  her  hands  ;  but  with  most  writers 
she  speaks  favorably  of  the  Turkish  peasant. 
The  principal  vice  he  has  is  his  religious 
fanaticism,  which  is  the  result  partly  of 
Mohammedanism  itself,  and  partly  of  the 
form  and  manner  in  which  it  is  inculcated  in 
Turkey.  Islam  may  be  broad  and  tolerant 
enough  ;  but  not  the  rigid  orthodox  Islam  as 
taught  in  the  primary  schools  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire.  Islam  is  an  excellent  creed  by 
itself  ;  but  a  ruling  Mohammedan  minority 
in  a  Christian  country  is  an  endless  source  of 
trouble.  But  the  religious  question  is  only 
one  of  those  which  have  disturbed  the  posi- 
tion of  the  Porte.  The  system  of  administra- 
tion, as  described  in  these  pages,  is  enough  to 
overturn  any  power,  and  an  official  class 
brought  up  under  vicious  home  influences, 
educated  in  fanatical  mosque-schools,  living 
the  self-indulgent  indolent  life  of  Stamboul, 
getting  and  keeping  office  by  bribery,  ad- 
ministering "  justice"  to  the  highest  bidder, 
is  a  doomed  class.  When  one  sees  how  a 
Turkish  child  is  brought  up  he  begins  to  won- 
der how  any  Turk  can  help  being  vicious  and 
dishonest.  It  is  quite  certain  that  there  is  no 
hope  for  the  Turks  so  long  as  Turkish  women 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  TURKEY. 


remain  what  they  are,  and  home-training  is 
the  initiation  of  vice.  So  far  as  can  be 
judged,  the  Turk  naturally  possessed  some 
of  the  true  elements  of  greatness  ;  but  it  is 
rarely  they  come  to  bear  fruit :  they  are 
choked  by  the  pernicious  social  system  which 
destroys  the  moral  force  of  the  women  and 
thereafter  the  men  of  the  empire.  It  is  this 
carefully  inculcated  deficiency  in  all  sense  of 
uprightness  and  justice,  and  this  trained  tend- 
ency to  everything  that  is  a  crime  against  the 
community,  that  renders  the  Pasha  incapable 
of  governing.  It  is  this  fact  which  compels 
one  to  admit  that,  whatever  the  decisions  of 
the  Berlin  Congress,  it  is  a  clear  gain  that  the 
war  has  won  for  Europe,  to  be  able  to  speak 
of  Turkish  rule  in  the  past  tense. 

With  full  knowledge  of  the  experience  and 
research  of  the  Author,  I  must  yet  say  there 
are  some  points — notably  the  Greek  Church 
of  Russia — in  which  I  cannot  bring  myself 
to  agree  with  her  ;  and  I  must  also  add  that, 
owing  to  the  haste  with  which  the  book  was 
put -through  the  press,  I  have  allowed  a  few 
misprints  to  escape  me. 

Stanley  Lank  Poole. 

June  20«,  1878. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  BULGARIANS. 

Sketch  of  Bulgarian  History — The  Slav  Occupation 
— Bulgar  Conquest— Mixture  of  the  Races — The  Bul- 
garian Kingdom— Contests  with  Constantinople— Basil 
Bulgaroktonos— Bulgaria  under  Ottoman  Rule — Com- 
pulsory Conversion— The  Fomaks — Oppressive  Gov- 
ernment— Janissary  Conscription— Extortion  of  Offi- 
cials—Misery of  the  People— Improvement  under  Ab- 
dul-Medjid— Fidelity  of  the  Bulgarians  to  the  Porte— 
The  late  Revolt  no  National  Movement — The  Geogra- 
phical Limits  of  Bulgaria— Mixture  with  Greeks— Life 
in  the  House  of  a  Bulgarian  Country  Gentleman — 
Daily  Levees  of  Elders  and  Peasants — Counsel  of  the 
Chorbadji  and  Stupidity  of  the  Clients— Instances  of 


Night  in  a  Bulgarian  Hamlet,  and  the  Comfort  thereof 
— Unity  of  the  Nation  —Distrust  of  Foreigners— De- 
moralization of  the  Bulgarians— The  Hope  for  the 
Future. 

The  Bulgarians,  who  were  completely 
crushed  by  the  Ottoman  Conquest,  and 
whose  very  existence  for  centuries  was 
almost  forgotten,  have  been  suddenly  brought 
before  the  world  by  the  late  unhappy  events 
in  their  country. 

?>Iuch  has  been  written  by  English  and 
foreign  authors  respecting  them,  but  few  of 
the  writings  on  the  subject  appear  to  agree 
with  regard  to  the  origin,  the  history,  or  the 
present  social  and  moral  condition  of  this 
much  injured  but  deserving  people.  I  have 
no  pretensions  to  throw  a  fresh  light  on  the 
first  two  points.  The  few  remarks  I  shall 
make  are  based  upon  such  authors  as  are  con- 
sidered most  trustworthy,  and  especially  on 
the  recent  researches  of  Professor  Hyrtf,  re- 
serving to  myself  the  task  of  describing  the 
moral  and  social  condition  of  the  modern 
Bulgarians,  as  fourteen  years  spent  among 
them  enables  me  to  do. 

From  the  Bulgarian  Professor  Drinov,  who  ; 
appears  to  have  made  the  Balkan  peninsula  | 
his  especial  study,  we  learn  that  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Bulgarian  tribes  into  European 
Turkey,   the  southern  side  of  the  Danube 
had  been  invaded  by  the  Slavs,  who  during 
four  centuries  poured  into  the  country  and, 
steadily  spreading,   drove   out  the  previous  I 
inhabitants,  who  directed  their  steps  towards 
the  sea-coasts  and  settled  iD  the  towns  there. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  the 
Slavonic  element  had  become  so  powerful  in 
its  newly-acquired  dominions,  and  its  depre-  I 
dutory  incursions  into  the  Byzantine  Empire 
so  extensive,  that  the  Emperor  Anastasius 
found  himself  forced  to  build  a  wall  from 
Selymbria  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora  to  Derkon  ' 
on  the  Black  Sea  in  order  to  repel  their  at-  j 
tacks.     Procopius,  commenting  on  this,   re- ' 


lates  that  while  Justinian  was  winning  use- 
less victories  over  the  Persians,  part  of  his 
empire  lay  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the 
Slavs,  and  that  not  less  than  200,000  Byzan- 
tines were  annually  killed  or  carried  away 
into  slavery. 

The  hostile  spirit,  however,  between  these 
two  nations  was  broken  by  short  intervals  of 
peace  and  friendly  relations,  during  which 
the  Slav  race  supplied  some  emperors  and 
many  distinguished  men  to  the  Byzantines. 
Many  Slavs  resorted  to  Constantinople  in 
order  to  receive  the  education  and  training 
their  newly-founded  kingdom  did  not  afford 
them.  The  migration  of  the  Slavs  into 
Thrace  ceased  towards  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enth century,  when  they  settled  down  to  a 
more  sedentary  life,  and,  under  the  civiliz- 
ing influence  of  their  Byzantine  neighbors, 
betook  themselves  to  agricultural  and  pasto- 
ral pursuits.  According  to  historical  ac- 
counts the  Slavs  did  not  long  enjoy  their  ac- 
quisitions in  peace,  for  about  the  year  679 
a.d.  a  horde  of  Hunnish  warriors,  calling 
themselves  Bulgars  (a  name  derived  from 
their  former  home  on  the  Volga),  crossed  the 
Danube  under  the  leadership  of  their  Khan, 
Asparuch,  and  after  some  desperate  fighting 
with  the  Slavs,  finally  settled  on  the  land  now 
known  as  Bulgaria  and  founded  a  kingdom 
which  in  its  turn  lasted  about  seven  hundred 
years. 

From  the  little  that  is  known  of  the  original 
Bulgarians,  we  learn  that  polygamy  was  prac- 
tised among  them,  that  the  men  shaved  their 
heads  and  wore  a  kind  of  turban,  and  the 
women  veiled  their  faces.  These  points  of 
similarity  connect  the  primitive  Bulgarians 
with  the  Avars,  with  whom  they  came  into 
close  contact,  as  well  as  with  the  Tatars,  dur- 
ing their  long  sojourn  between  the  Volga  and 
Tanais,  as  witness  the  marked  Tatar  features 
some  of  the  Bulgarians  bear  to  the  present 
day.  The  primitive  Bulgarians  are  said  to 
have  subsisted  chiefly  on  the  flesh  of  animals 
killed  in  the  chase  ;  and  it  is  further  related 
of  them  that  they  burnt  their  dead,  and 
when  a  chieftain  died  his  wives  and  servants 
were  also  burnt  and  their  ashes  buried  with 
those  of  their  master.  Schafarik,  whose 
learned  and  trustworthy  researches  on  the 
origin  of  the  Bulgarians  can  scarcely  be  called 
in  question,  remarks  that  the  warlike  hordes 
from  the  Volga  regions,  though  not  numer- 
ous, were  very  brave  and  well  skilled  in  war. 
They  attacked  with  great  ferocity  the  patient 
plodding  Slavs,  who  were  engaged  in  culti- 
vating the  land  and  rearing  cattle,  quickly 
obtained  the  governing  power,  and  after  tast- 
ing the  comforts  of  a  settled  life,  gradually 
adopted  to  a  great  extent  the  manners,  cus- 
toms, and  even  the  language  of  the  people 
they  had  conquered.  This  amalgamation  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  slow  process,  occupying, 
according  to  historical  evidence,  ful!  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years.  It  is  during  this 
period  that  the  Bulgarian  language  must  have 
gradually  been  effaced,  and  the  vanquishing 
race,  like  the  Normans  in  England,  absorbed 
by  the  vanquished. 

This  fresh  mixture  with  the  Slav  element 
constituted  the  Bulgarians  a  separate  race, 
with  no  original  title  to  belong  to  the  Slavonic 
family  beyond  that  derived  from  the  fusion 
of  blood  that  followed  the  long  intercourse 
of  centuries,  by  which  the  primitive  Bulgari- 
ans became  blended  with  the  former  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country.  It  is  evident  that  they 
were  superior  to  the  Slavs  in  military  science 
and  power,  but  inferior  as  regards  civiliza- 
tion, and  thus  naturally  yielded  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  more  advanced  and  better  organ- 
ized people.  By  this  influence  they  created 
a  distinct  nation,  gave  their  name  to  the 
country,  and  consolidated  their  power  by 
laws  and  institutions. 

The  Bulgarian  kingdom,  from  its  very 
foundation  in  679  until  its  final  overthrow  by 
the  Turks  in  1396,  presents  a  wearisome  tale 
of  battles  with  short  intervals  of  peace,  in  the 
struggle  for  supremacy  between  the  Emperors 


of  Byzantium  and  the  rulers  of  Bulgaria. 
The  balance  of  power  alternately  inclined 
f  i  om  one  party  to  the  other  ;  the  wars  were 
inhuman  on  both  sides  ;  on  the  one  hand,  we 
read  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Byzantines 
yearly  sacrificed  by  the  Slavs  ;  on  the  other, 
we  have  equally  horrible  spectacles  presented 
to  us,  like  that  enacted  during  the  reign  of 
Basil,  surnamed  BovXyaponTovor  (The  Bulga- 
rian-killer), on  account  of  the  great  number 
of  Bulgarians  killed  by  his  order.  This  sav- 
age, having  on  one  occasion  captured  a  large 
number  of  Bulgarians,  separated  15,000  into 
companies  of  100  each,  and  ordered  ninety - 
I  nine  out  of  each  of  these  companies  to  be 
j  blinded,  allowing  the  remaining  hundredth 
to  retain  his  sight  in  order  to  become  the 
leader  of  his  blind  brethren. 

In  the  midst  of  such  scenes,  and  at  the  cost 
of  torrents  of  blood,  successive  kingdoms 
were  constituted  in  this  unhappy  land  of  per- 
petual warfare.  Raised  into  momentary  em- 
inence by  the  force  of  arms,  they  were  again 
hurled  to  the  ground  by  the  same  merciless 
instrument.  Supreme  power  has  been  alter 
nately  wielded  by  the  savage,  the  Moslem, 
and  the  Christian ;  each  of  whom  to  the 
present  day  continues  the  work  of  destruction. 

The  condition  of  Bulgarians  did  not  improve 
under  the  Ottoman  rule.  Their  empire  soon 
disappeared,  leaving  to  posterity  nothing  but 
a  few  ruined  castles  and  fortresses,  and  some 
annals  and  popular  songs  illustrating  its  past 
glory.  The  Turkish  conquest  was  more 
deeply  felt  by  the  Bulgarians  than  by  their 
brethren  in  adversity,  the  Byzantines  and  the 
neighboring  Slav  nations.  These,  owing  to 
the  more  favorable  geographical  position  of 
their  countries  and  other  advantages,  were 
able  to  save  some  privileges  out  of  the  general 
wreck,  and  to  retain  a  shadow  of  their  na- 
tional rights.  The  Byzantines  were  pro- 
tected by  a  certain  amount  of  influence  left  in 
the  hands  of  the  clergy,  while  the  Slav  nations 
were  enabled  to  make  certain  conditions  with 
their  conqueror  before  their  complete  surren- 
der, and  were  successful  in  enlisting  the  gym 
pathies  and  protection  of  friendly  powers  in 
their  behalf,  and  in  obtaining  through  their 
instrumentality  at  intervals  reforms  never 
vouchsafed  to  the  Bulgarians.  This  nation, 
isolated,  ignored,  and  shut  out  from  the  civ- 
ilized world,  crouched  under  the  despotic 
rule  of  the  Ottomans,  and  submitted  to  a  life 
of  perpetual  toil  and  hardship,  uncheered  by 
any  of  the  pleasures  of  life,  unsupported  by 
the  least  gleam  of  hope  for  a  better  future. 

This  sad  condition  has  lasted  for  centu- 
ries ;  and  by  force  of  misery  the  people  be- 
came grouped  into  two  classes  :  the  poor, 
who  were  constant  to  their  faith  and  national 
feeling,  and  the  wealthy  and  prosperous,  who 
adopted  Islam  in  order  to  escape  persecution 
and  save  their  property.  To  this  latter  class 
may  be  added  the  Pomaks,  a  predatory  tribe 
inhabiting  a  mountainous  district  between 
the  provinces  of  Philippopolis  and  Serres. 
They  live  apart,  and  pass  for  Mussulmans 
because  they  have  some  mosques  ;  but  they 
have  no  knowledge  of  the  Koran  nor  follow 
its  laws  very  closely.  Most  of  them  to  this 
day  bear  Christian  names  and  speak  the  Slav 
language.  The  men  are  a  fine  race,  but 
utterly  ignorant  and  barbarous. 

Upon  the  poor  and  therefore  Christian  class 
fell  all  the  weight  of  the  Ottoman  yoke, 
which  made  itself  felt  in  their  moral  and 
material  condition,  and  reached  even  to  the 
dress,  which  was  enforced  as  a  mark  of  ser- 
vility. They  were  forbidden  to  build 
churches,  and  beyond  the  ordinary  annual 
poll-tax  imposed  by  Moslems  on  infidel  sub- 
jects, they  had  to  submit  to  the  many  illegal 
extortions  of  rapacious  governors  and  cruel 
landlords ;  besides  the  terrible  blood-tax 
collected  every  five  years  to  recruit  the  ranks 
of  the  Janissaries  from  the  finest  children  of 
the  province.  Nor  were  the  Bulgarian  maid- 
ens spared  :  if  a  girl  struck  the  fancy  of  a  Mo- 
hammedan neighbor  or  a  government  official, 
he  always  found  means  to  possess  himself  a? 


299174 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  TURKEY. 


her  person  without  using  much  ceremony  or 
fearing  much  commotion. 

The  depressing  and  demoralizing  effect  of 
such  a  system  upon  the  Bulgarians  may  be 
imagined  ;  it  was  sufficient  to  brutalize  a 
people  far  more  advanced  than  they  were  at 
the  time  of  the  conquest.  It  cowed  them, 
destroyed  their  brave  and  venturous  spirit, 
taught  them  to  cringe,  and  weakened  their 
ideas  of  right  and  wrong.  It  is  not  strange 
that  a  people  thus  demoralized  should,  under 
the  pressure  of  recent  troubles,  be  said  in 
some  instances  to  have  acted  treacherously 
both  towards  their  late  rulers  and  present  pro- 
tectors ;  but  the  vices  of  rapacity,  treachery, 
cruelty,  and  dishonesty  could  not  have 
been  the  natural  characteristics  of  this  un- 
happy people  until  misery  taught  them  the 
lesson. 

The  laws  promulgated  in  the  reign  of  Sul- 
tan Abdul-Medjid  with  respect  to  the  amelio- 
ration of  the  condition  of  the  rayahs  were 
gradually  introduced  into  Bulgaria,  and  their 
beneficial  influence  tended  greatly  to  remove 
some  of  the  most  crying  wrongs  that  had  so 
long  oppressed  the  people.  These  reforms 
apparently  satisfied  the  Bulgarians — always 
easily  contented  and  peacefully  disposed. 
They  were  thankful  for  the  slight  protection 
thus  thrown  over  their  life  and  property. 
They  welcomed  tho  reforms  with  gratitude 
as  the  signs  of  better  days,  and,  stimulated 
by  written  laws,  as  well  as  by  the  better  sys- 
tem of  government  that  had  succeeded  the 
old  one  and  had  deprived  their  Mohammedan 
neighbors  of  some  of  their  power  of  molest- 
ing and  injuring  them,  they  redoubled  their 
activity  and  endeavored  by  industry  to  im- 
prove their  condition.  Such  changes  can  be 
only  gradual  among  an  oppressed  people  in 
the  absence  of  good  government  and  easy 
communication  with  the  outer  world. 

The  Bulgarians,  inwardly,  perhaps,  still 
dissatisfied,  seemed  outwardly  content  and 
attached  to  the  Porte  in  the  midst  of  the  rev- 
olutionary movements  that  alternately  con- 
vulsed the  Servian,  Greek,  and  Albanian 
populations.  A  very  small  section  alone 
yielded  to  the  influence  of  the  foreign  agents 
or  comitate,  who  were  using  every  means  to 
create  a  general  rising  in  Bulgaria,  or  was  at 
any  time  in  the  Bulgarian  troubles  enticed  to 
raise  its  voice  against  the  Ottoman  Govern- 
ment and  throw  off  its  allegiance.  The  late 
movement  is  said  to  have  received  encour- 
agement from  the  Bulgarian  clergy  acting 
under  Russian  influence,  and  from  the  young 
schoolmasters,  whose  more  advanced  ideas 
naturally  led  them  to  instil  notions  of  indepen- 
dence among  the  people.  But  these  views  were 
by  no  means  entertained  by  the  more  thought- 
ful and  important  members  of  the  community, 
and  no  organized  disaffection  existed  in  Bulga- 
ria at  the  time  the  so-called  revolt  began.  The 
action  of  a  few  hot-headed  patriots,  followed 
by  some  discontented  peasants,  started  the  re- 
volt which,  if  it  had  been  judiciously  dealt 
with,  might  have  been  suppressed  without 
one  drop  of  blood.  The  Bulgarians  would 
probably  have  continued  plodding  on  as 
faithful  subjects  of  the  Porte,  instead  of  be- 
ing made — as  will  apparently  be  the  case — a 
portion  of  the  Slav  group.  Whether  this 
fresh  arrangement  will  succeed  remains  to  be 
seen  ;  but  according  to  my  experience  of 
Bulgarian  character,  there  is  very  little  sym- 
pathy between  it  and  the  Slav.  The  Bulga- 
rians have  ever  kept  aloof  from  their  Sla- 
vonic neighbors,  and  will  continue  a  separate 
people  even  when  possessed  of  independence. 
The  limits  of  Bulgaria,  which  must  be  drawn 
from  an  ethnological  standpoint,  are  not  very 
easily  determined.  The  right  of  conquest  and 
long' possession  no  doubt  entitles  the  Bulga- 
rians to  call  their  own  the  country  extending 
from  the  Danube  to  the  Balkans.  South  of 
that  range  and  of  Mount  Scardos,  however, 
i.e.,  in  the  northern  part  of  Thrace  and  Mac- 
edonia, their  settlement  was  never  perma- 
nent, and  their  capital,  originally  established 
in  Lychnidos  (the  modern  Ochrida),  had  to 


be  removed  north  of  the  Balkans  to  Tirnova. 
The  colonies  they  established  were  never 
very  important,  since  they  were  scattered  in 
the  open  country  as  better  adapted  to  the  ag- 
ricultural and  pastoral  pursuits  of  the  nation. 
These  settlements,  forming  iuto  large  and 
small  villages,  took  Bulgarian  names,  but  the 
names  of  the  towns  remained  Greek. 

The  Bulgarians  south  of  the  Balkans  are  a 
mixed  race,  neither  purely  Greek  nor  purely 
Bulgarian  ;  but  their  manners  and  customs 
and  physical  features  identify  them  more 
closely  with  the  Greeks  than  with  the  Bulga- 
rians north  of  the  Balkans.  There  the  Fin- 
nish type  is  clearly  marked  by  the  projecting 
cheek  bones,  the  short  upturned  nose,  the 
small  eyes,  and  thickly-set  but  rather  small 
build  of  the  people. 

In  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  where  Hellenic 
blood  and  features  predominate,  and  Hellenic 
influence  is  more  strongly  felt,  the  people 
call  themselves  Thracians  and  Macedonians, 
rather  than  Bulgarians  ;  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, in  schools,  churches,  and  in  corre- 
spondence, is  used  by  the  majority  in  pref- 
erence to  the  Bulgarian,  and  even  in  the  late 
church  question  in  many  places  the  people 
showed  themselves  lukewarm  about  the  sep- 
aration, and  the  bulk  remained  faithful  to 
the  Church  of  Constantinople. 

The  sandjak  of  Philippopolis,  esteemed 
almost  entirely  Bulgarian  by  some  writers,  is 
claimed  for  the  Greeks  by  others  upon  the  ar- 
gument that  Stanimacho,  with  its  fifteen  vil- 
lages, is  Greek  with  regard  to  language  and 
predilection,  and  Didymotichon,  with  its  for- 
ty-five villages,  is  a  mixture  of  Greeks  and 
Bulgarians.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  in 
this  sandjak,  in  consequence  of  its  proximity 
to  Bulgaria  proper,  and  to  its  developed  and 
prosperous  condition,  the  Bulgarian  element 
has  taken  the  lead. 

The  revival  of  the  church  question  and  the 
educational  movement  have  stayed  and  al- 
most nullified  Greek  influence,  which  is  lim- 
ited to  certain  localities  like  Stanimacho  and 
other  places,  where  the  people  hold  as 
staunchly  to  their  Greek  nationality  as  the 
Bulgarians  of  other  localities  do  to  their  own. 
While  dispute  waxed  hot  in  the  town  of 
Philippopolis  between  the  parties  of  Greeks 
and  Bulgarians,  each  in  defence  of  its  rights, 
no  spirit  of  the  kind  was  ever  evinced  in 
Adrianople,  where  the  population  is  princi- 
pally Greek  and  Turkish,  with  a  small  num- 
ber of  Armenians  and  Bulgarians.  In  Mac- 
edonia the  sandjak  of  Salonika,  comprising 
Cassandra,  Verria,  and  Serres,  numbering  in 
all  about  250.000  souls,  is,  with  few  excep- 
tions, Greek,  or  so  far  Ilellenized  as  to  be  so  to 
all'intents  and  purposes.  The  inhabitants  of 
Vodena  and  Janitza,  and  the  majority  in 
Doi'ran  and  Stromnitza,  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  population  of  Avrat  Hissar,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Vardar,  claim  Greek 
nationality.  The  Greeks  in  this  part  of  the 
country  have  worked  with  the  same  tenacity 
of  purpose  and  consequent  success  in  Hellen- 
izing  the  people,  as  the  Bulgarians  of  the 
kaza  of  Philippopolis  in  promoting  the  feel- 
ing of  Bulgarian  nationality  there.  This 
mission  of  the  Greeks  here  has  not  been  a 
very  difficult  one,  as  the  national  feeling  of 
the  bulk  of  the  population  is  naturally 
Greek. 

Notwithstanding  the  marked  tendency  of 
the  people  towards  Hellenism,  the  language 
in  Vodena  and  other  places  is  Bulgarian  ; 
but  the  features  of  the  people,  together  with 
their  ideas,  manners,  and  customs,  are  essen- 
tially Greek  ;  even  the  dress  of  the  Bulgarian- 
speaking  peasant  is  marked  by  the  absence 
of  the  typical  potour  and  the  gougla  or  cap 
worn  in  Bulgaria. 

Most  of  the  authors  who  have  written  on 
the  populations  of  these  regions  have,  either 
through  Panslavistic  views  or  misled  by  the 
prevalence  of  the  Bulgarian  language  in  the 
rural  districts,  put  down  the  whole  of  the 
population  as  Bulgarian,  a  mistake  easily 
corrected  by  a  summary  of  the  number  of 


Greeks  and  Bulgarians  conjointly  occupying 
those  districts,  separating  the  purely  Greek 
from  the  purely  Bulgarian  element,  and  tak- 
ing into  consideration  at  the  same  time  the 
number  of  mixed  Greeks  and  Bulgarians. 

If  the  wide  geographical  limits  projected 
by  Russia  for  Bulgaria  be  carried  out,  there 
will  be  a  recurrence  of  all  the  horrors  of  the 
recent  war  in  a  strife  between  the  Greeks 
and  Bulgarians,  in  consequence  of  the  en- 
croachment of  the  future  Bulgaria  upon  ter- 
ritory justly  laid  claim  to  by  the  Greeks  as 
ethnologically  their  own  and  as  a  heritage 
from  past  ages.  The  question  would  be 
greatly  simplmed  and  the  danger  of  future 
contests  between  the  t<vo  peoples  much  les- 
sened, if  not  entirely  removed,  by  the  Bulga- 
rian autonomy  being  limited  to  the  country 
north  of  the  Balkans. 

The  Greek  Government  might  not  be  equal 
at  first  to  the  administration  of  their  newly  • 
acquired  kingdom,  but  if  united  in  close  alli- 
ance with  some  friendly  power  and  placed 
under  its  tutelage,  an  honest  and  stable  em- 
pire might  be  established  with  every  proba- 
bility of  soon  rising  into  -a  flourishing  con- 
dition in  the  hands  of  a  people  whose  intelli- 
gence, activity,  and  enterprising  spirit  give 
them  an  incontestable  superiority  over  the 
other  races  of  Turkey. 

The  Bulgarians  south  of  the  Balkans  being, 
as  before  said,  of  a  mixed  race  engrafted  upon 
the  Hellenic  stock,  would  not  be  found  to 
|  offer  any  serious  opposition.     They  are  close- 
ly incorporated  with  the  Greek  element  in 
some  districts  ;  while  in  others,  where  Bul- 
;  garian    feeling     predominates,    the    people 
would  willingly  migrate  to  Bulgaria  proper, 
I  as  the  Hellenized  Bulgarians  under  such  an 
arrangement  would  draw  nearer  to  Greece  ; 
whilst  in  parts  of  Macedonia,  where  Hellen- 
ism has  the  ascendancy,  very  little  difficulty 
would  be  met  with  from  the  Bulgarian  set- 
tlements. 

My  recollections  of  Bulgarian  social  life 
are  to  a  great  extent  derived  from  a  three 
months'  stay  I  made  under  the  hospitable 
roof  of  a  Bulgarian  gentleman,  or  Chorbadji, 
as  he  was  called  by  his  own  people.  He  was 
the  most  wealthy  and  influential  person  in 

the  town  of  T ,  where  his  position  as 

member  of  the  Medjeiss  constituted  him  the 
chief  guardian  and  advocate  of  the  Bulga- 
rian people  of  the  district.  I  mention  this  in 
order  to  show  the  reader  that  in  his  house 
the  opportunity  of  making  important  obser- 
vations and  of  witnessing  national  character- 
istics were  not  wanting.  These  observations 
embraced  the  social  features  I  was  allowed 
to  study  in  the  midst  of  the  home  and  family 
life  both  of  the  educated  and  thinking  Bul- 
garians and  of  the  peasants  who  daily  flocked 
to  the  house  of  my  friend  from  the  towns 
and  villages  to  submit  to  him  their  wrongs 
and  grievances,  and,  as  their  national  repre- 
sentative, to  ask  his  advice  and  assistance  be- 
fore proceeding  to  the  local  courts. 

These  levees  began  sometimes  as  early  as 
six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  lasted  until 
eleven.  The  Kudjabashi,  or  headmen,  would 
come  in  a  body  to  consult  about  the  affairs 
of  the  community,  or  to  represent  some 
grave  case  pending  before  the  local  court  of 
their  respective  towns  ;  or  groups  of  peas- 
ants of  both  sexes,  sometimes  representing 
the  population  of  a  whole  village,  would  ar- 
rive, at  the  request  of  the  authorities,  to  an- 
swer some  demand  made  by  them,  or  plead 
against  an  act  of  gross  injury  or  injustice. 
Whatever  the  cause  that  brought  them  daily 
under  my  notice,  the  picture  they  presented 
was  extremely  curious  and  interesting,  and 
the  pleasure  was  completed  by  the  privilege 
I  enjoyed  of  afterwards  obtaining  a  detailed 
account  of  the  causes  and  grievances  that 
brought  them  there.  When  the  interested 
visitors  happened  to  be  elders  of  their  little 
communities  or  towns,  they  were  shown  into 
the  study  of  my  host.  After  exchanging  sa- 
lutes and  shaking  hands,  they  were  offered 
slatko  (preserves)  and  coffee,   and  business 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


■was  at  once  entered  into.  At  such  moments 
the  Bulgarian  docs  not  display  the  heat  and 
excitement  that  characterizes  the  Greek,  nor 
fall  into  the  uproarious  argument  of  the  Ar- 
menians and  Jews,  nor  yet  display  the  finess- 
ing wit  of  the  Turk  ;  but  steering  a  middle 
course  between  these  different  modes  of  ac- 
tion, he  stands  his  ground  and  perseveres  in 
his  argument,  until  he  has  either  made  his 
case  clear  or  is  persuaded  to  take  another 
view  of  it.  The  subjects  that  most  animat- 
ed the  Bulgarians  in  these  assemblies  were 
their  national  affairs  and  their  dissensions 
with  the  Greeks  j  the  secondary  ones  were 
the  wrongs  and  grievances  they  suffered 
from  a  bad  administration ;  and  although 
they  justly  lamented  these,  and  at  times  bit- 
terly complained  of  the  neglect  or  incapacity 
of  the  Porte  to  right  them  in  an  effective 
manner  and  put  a  stop  to  acts  of  injustice 
committed  by  their  Mohammedan  neighbors 
and  the  local  courts,  I  at  no  time  noticed  any 
tendency  to  disloyalty  or  revolutionary  no- 
tions, or  any  disposition  to  court  Russian 
protection,  from  which,  indeed,  the  most  en- 
lightened and  important  portion  of  the  nation 
at  that  period  made  decided  efforts  to  keep 
aloof. 

When  it  was  the  peasants  who  gathered  at 
the  Chorbadji's  house,their  band  was  led  by  its 
Kodja-Bashi,  who,  acting  as  spokesman,  first 
entered  the  big  gate,  followed  by  a  long  train 
of  his  brethren.  Ranged  in  a  line  near  the 
porch,  they  awaited  the  coming  of  the  mas- 
ter to  explain  to  him  the  cause  of  their  visit. 
Their  distinguished- looking  patron,  pipe  in 
hand,  shortly  made  his  appearance  at  the 
door,  when  caps  were  immediately  doffed, 
and  the  right  hands  were  laid  on  the  breast 
and  hidden  by  the  shaggy  heads  bending 
over  them  in  a  salaam,  answered  by  a  kindly 
"  Dobro  deni  "  (good  morning),  followed  by 
the  demand  "  Shto  sakaty  ?"  (what  do  you 
want  V)  The  peasants,  with  an  embarrassed 
air,  looked  at  each  other,  while  the  Kodja- 
Bashi  proceeded  to  explain  matters.  Should 
his  eloquence  fall  short  of  the  task,  one  or 
two  others  would  step  out  of  the  ranks  and 
become  spokesmen.  It  was  almost  painful 
to  see  these  simple  people  endeavoring  to 
give  a  clear  and  comprehensive  account  of 
their  case,  and  trying  to  understand  the  ad- 
vice and  directions  of  the  Chorbadji.  A 
half-frightened,  surprised  look,  importing 
fear  or  doubt,  a  shrug  of  the  shoulders,  ac- 
companied by  the  words  "  Ne  znam — Ne 
mozhem"  (I  do  not  know,  I  cannot  do),  was 
generally  the  first  expression  in  answer  to  the 
eloquence  of  my  friend,  who  in  his  repeated 
efforts  to  explain  matters  frequently  lost  all 
patience,  and  would  end  by  exclaiming,  ' '  Ne 
biddy  magari !"  (Don't  be  donkeys  !)— a  re- 
mark which  had  no  effect  upon  the  band  of 
rustics  further  than  to  send  them  off,  full  of 
gratitude,  to  do  as  he  had  counselled. 

Perhaps  the  reader  may  be  curious  to  know 
the  details  of  some  of  the  cases  daily  brought 
under  my  notice.  I  will  mention  a  few  not 
connected  with  Turkish  oppression  and  mal- 
administration ;  for  by  this  time  the  English 
public  has  been  pretty  well  enlightened  on 
that  subject.  My  list  will  include  some 
rather  more  original  incidents  which  took 
place  in  the  community  :  disputes  between 
all  non-Mussulmans  are  generally  settled  by 
the  temporal  or  spiritual  chiefs,  and  seldom 
brought  before  the  Courts  of  Justice. 

While  Greeks  and  Bulgarians  in  the  heat 
of  controversy  were  snatching  churches  and 
monasteries  from  each  other,  the  priests  and 
monks  who  were  attached  to  these  sacred 
foundations  found  themselves  unpleasantly 
jostled  between  the  two  hostile  elements.  To 
be  a  Greek  priest  or  monk  and  be  forced  to 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  an  anathema- 
tized and  illegal  church  was  a  profanation 
not  to  be  endured  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
to  be  a  Bulgarian  and  be  forced  to  pray  day 
by  day  for  a  detested  spiritual  head  rejected 
by  his  nation  was  an  insupportable  anomaly. 
In  the  midst  of  the  difficulty  and  confusion 


at  first  caused  by  this  state  of  affairs,  some 
of  the  good  fathers  and  monks  had  to  re- 
move their  quarters  and  betake  themselves 
to  a  wandering  life,  visiting  their  respective 
communities  and  encouraging  the  people  by 
their  exhortations  to  hold  fast  to  their  church 
and  oppose  witli  all  their  might  the  claims 
and  usurping  tendencies  of  the  others. 
Among  these  a  Bulgarian  monk,  more  ven- 
turous and  evidently  endowed  with  a  greater 
amount  of  imaginative  eloquence  than  the 
rest,  and  rejoicing  in  the  title  of  Spheti  Pan- 
teleemon,  regarded  himself  as  the  prophet  of 
the  Bulgarian  people.  This  Saint  Pantelee- 
mon  was  a  man  of  middle  age  and  middle 
height,  with  a  jovial  face,  a  cunning  look, 
and  an  intelligent  but  restless  eye,  by  no 
means  indicative  of  an  ascetic  view  of  life. 

Contrary  to  the  saying  that  no  man  is  a 
prophet  in  his  own  country,  Spheti  Pantelee- 
mon  was  acknowledged  as  such  by  a  consid- 
erable class  of  his  people,  consisting  entirely 
of  the  gentle  sex,  and  his  success  among  them 
was  as  great  as  ritualism  appears  to  be  in 
England. 

The  preaching  of  this  prophet,  intended 
solely  for  the  Bulgarian  women,  became  so 
pronounced  in  its  tenets,  so  eloquent  in  its 
delivery,  and  was  rendered  so  impressive  by 
the  different  means  he  employed  to  instil  his 
precepts  into  the  hearts  and.  minds  of  his 
hearers,  that  their  number  soon  increased 
into  a  vast  congregation,  which  flocked  from 
all  parts  of  the  country  to  hear  the  words  of 
their  favorite  saint.  On  such  occasions, 
this  false  prophet,  who  had  managed  to 
usurp  possession  of  a  small  monastery,  would 
stand  forth  amid  thousands  of  women,  who 
at  his  approach  would  cross  themselves  and 
fall  down  almost  to  worship  him.  Spheti 
Panteleemon,  in  acknowledgment  of  this 
mark  of  devotion,  would  raise  his  voice  and 
rehearse  his  doctrines  to  the  devotees.  These 
doctrines  included  strange  principles,  assert- 
ed by  their  author  to  be  the  best  and  surest 
way  to  Paradise  ;  but  they  scarcely  conduced 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  husbands.  Women, 
according  to  this  man,  were  to  be  free  and 
independent,  and  their  principal  affections 
were  to  be  bestowed  upon  their  spiritual 
guide  ;  their  earnestness  was  to  be  proved  by 
depositing  their  earthly  wealth  (consisting 
chiefly  of  their  silver  ornaments)  at  his  feet. 
The  practical  Bulgarian  husbands,  however, 
were  by  no  means  admirers  of  this  new  spir- 
itual director,  whose  sole  object  appeared  to 
be  to  rob  them  of  the  affections  of  their  wives 
along  with  their  wealth,  and  they  soon  raised 
their  voices  against  his  proceedings.  After 
holding  counsel  on  the  subject,  they  decided 
to  give  notice  of  his  doings  to  the  local  au- 
thorities, and  by  their  influence  to  have  him 
sent  out  of  the  country.  The  prophet  was 
arrested  one  fine  morning,  while  addressing 
a  congregation  of  500  women,  by  a  body  of 
police,  and  brought  to  the  prison  of  the  town 
of  S ,  whilst  all  the  women  devoutly  fol- 
lowed, weeping,  beating  their  breasts,  and 
clamoring  for  the  release  of  their  saint.  The 
husbands,  on  the  other  hand,  pleaded  their 
grievances  against  this  disorganizer  of  socie- 
t}r,  and  proved  his  dishonesty  by  displaying 
to  the  authorities  a  quantity  of  silver  trinkets 
of  all  descriptions  taken  from  his  dwelling, 
to  the  great  indignation  of  his  devotees. 
The  imagination  of  some  of  these  ignorant 
and  superstitious  peasant  women  had  been 
so  worked  upon  that  they  solemnly  declared 
to  me  that  the  feet  of  their  prophet  never 
touched  the  ground,  but  remained  always 
a  distance  of  two  feet  above  it,  and  that  his 
sole  sustenance  was  grass.  While  his  fate 
was  still  undecided,  amidst  the  wailings  of 
the  women,  the  protests  of  the  husbands, 
and  the  embarrassment  of  the  authorities,  the 
fellow  got  out  of  the  difficulty  by  declaring 
himself  a  "  Uniate"  and  a  member  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  This  avowal  could  not 
fail  to  excite  the  interest  of  the  agents  of 
that  body  :  they  claimed  the  stray  sheep  as 
redeemed,  took  him  under  their  immediate 


protection,  but  (it  is  to  be  hoped)  deprived 
him  of  his  pretended  attribute  of  sanctity  and 
the  power  of  making  himself  any  longer  a 
central  object  of  attraction  to  the  beau  sexe. 

Another  incident  was  of  a  nature  less  sen- 
sational but  equally  repulsive  to  the  feelings 
and  notions  of  the  strict  portion  of  the  Bul- 
garian nation,  and  had  also  a  monk  for  its 
hero.  It  consisted  of  an  elopement,  and  if 
there  is  one  crime  that  shocks  and  horrifies 
orthodox  people  more  than  another,  it  is  that 
of  a  monk  who,  taking  the  vows  of  celibacy, 
perjures  himself  by  adopting  the  respectable 
life  of  a  married  man.  Such  events  are  of 
very  rare  occurrence,  and  when  they  take 
place  cause  a  great  commotion. 

This  monk,  at  the  time  of  the  disputed 
church  rights,  lost  his  solitary  retreat,  and 
was  once  more  thrown  in  contact  with  the 
world  he  had  forsworn.  Sent  adrift,  he  set 
out  in  search  of  an  unknown  destiny,  with- 
out hope  or  friends,  uncertain  where  his  next 
meal  was  to  come  from.  After  a  long  day's 
march,  he  lay  down  to  rest  under  a  tree  in  a 
cultivated  field,  and,  overcome  by  fatigue, 
fell  asleep.  He  was  about  twenty -five  years 
of  age,  tall,  with  regular  features,  a  start- 
lingly  pale  complexion,  and  coal  black  eyes, 
hair,  and  beard  ;  his  whole  appearance,  in 
deed,  rather  handsome  than  otherwise.  Such , 
at  least,  was  the  description  given  of  him  by 
the  rustic  beauty  who  surprised  him  while 
driving  her  father's  cattle  home. 

A  Bulgarian  monk  in  those  stirring  times 
was  always  an  object  of  interest,  even  to  a 
less  imaginative  person  than  a  young  maid- 
en. She,  therefore,  considered  it  her  duty 
to  watch  over  his  slumbers,  and  refresh  him 
with  bread  and  salt  on  awaking.  Quietly 
seating  herself  by  his  side,  she  awaited  the 
arousal  of  the  unconscious  sleeper.  When 
he  awoke,  his  eyes  met  those  of  the  girl,  and 
in  that  exchange  of  looks  a  new  light  dawned 
upon  these  two  beings,  who,  though  they 
had  never  met  before,  were  now  to  become 
dearer  to  each  other  than  life  itself.  The 
monk  forgot  his  vows  and  poured  forth  his 
tale  of  love  to  a  willing  listener,  who  imme- 
diately vowed  to  follow  his  fortunes  and  be- 
come his  wife,  or  end  her  days  in  a  convent. 
This  illustrates  the  definition  of  love  once 
given  to  me  by  a  Bulgarian  gentleman  : 
"  Chez  nous  l'amour  n'a  point  de  prelimi- 
naires  ;  on  va  droit  au  fait. "  The  adventu- 
rous couple  forthwith  eloped,  and  wandered 
about  the  country,  until  the  monk  was  dis- 
covered, in  spite  of  his  disguise,  by  the  scan- 
dalized Bulgarians,  by  whom  he  was  once 
more  sent  to  a  monastery,  imprisoned  in  a 
dungeon,  condemned  to  live  upon  dry  bread 
and  to  undergo  daily  corporal  chastise- 
ment for  his  sins.  But  the  adventurous 
maiden,  determined  to  effect  his  release,  con- 
trived to  make  friends  with  the  Kir  Agassi, 
or  head  of  the  mounted  police  in  the  district 
where  the  monastery  was  situated,  and 
through  his  instrumentality  the  monk  was 
again  set  at  liberty.  The  subject  was  dis- 
cussed in  all  its  bearings  at  the  house  of  my 
friends,  until  the  couple  wisely  adopted  Prot- 
estantism, and  after  being  married  by  a  min- 
ister of  that  church  settled  down  to  a  peace- 
ful life  of  domestic  bliss. 

A  third  incident  illustrates  the  Bulgarian 
appreciation  of  surgical  art.  The  name  of 
surgeon  was  unknown  in  the  country  vil- 
lages, and  that  of  dentist,  even  in  a  large 

town  like  S ,  until  an  adventurous  spirit 

belonging  to  the  latter  profession,  in  the 
course  of  a  speculative  tour,  established  him- 
self there.  The  inhabitants,  on  passing  his 
house,  used  to  stop  and  gaze  in  wonder  at, 
the  sets  of  teeth  displayed  under  glass  cases. 
Conjecture  ran  wild  as  to  how  these  were 
made  and  could  be  used.  Some  imagined 
them  to  be  abstracted  from  the  jaws  of  dead 
persons,  salted,  and  prepared  in  some  mys- 
terious way  for  refitting  in  the  mouths  of  the 
living. 

The  fame  of  the  dentist's  art  began  to  be 
noised  abroad    throughout   the  district,  and 


/ 


6 

many  became  desirous,  if  not  of  procuring 
new  "teeth,  at  least  of  having  some  trouble- 
some old  stumps  extracted.  Among  these 
was  a  well-to-do  Bulgarian  peasant,  who 
presented  himself  in  the  surgery  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  dentist  relieved  him  of  his  tooth 
with  great  facility,  to  the  man's  exceeding 
astonishment.  On  leaving  he  took  out  his 
long  knitted  money-bag,  carefully  counted 
out"  five  piastres  (10(7.),  and  handed  them  to 
the  dentist,  who  returned  them,  saying  that 
his  fee  would  be  half  a  lira.  "  What !"  ex- 
claimed the  indignant  Bulgarian;  "do  you 
mean  to  say  that  you  will  charge  me  so 
much,  when  last  week  I  underwent  the  same 
operation  at  the  hands  of  my  barber,  and 
after  a  struggle  of  two  hours  over  an  obsti- 
nate tooth,  during  which  I  had  several  times 
to  lie  flat  on  my  back  and  he  and  I  were  both 
bathed  in  perspiration  until  it  finally  yielded, 
I  paid  him  five  piastres,  with  which  he  was 
quite  contented  ;  and  you,  who  were  only  a 
few  minutes  over  it,  demand  ten  times  that 
sum  !  It  is  simply  monstrous,  and  I  shall 
forthwith  lodge  a  complaint  against  you  !" 

As  good  as  his  word,  in  a  fever  of  excite- 
ment he  arrived  at  the  Chorbadji's  house  to 
denounce  the  extortionate  Frank.  When 
quietly  asked  if  it  were  not  worth  while  to 
pay  a  larger  sum  and  get  rid  of  his  tooth 
without  loss  of  time  and  trouble,  instead  of 
spending  two  hours  of  suffering  and  violent 
exertion  for  which  he  was  charged  only  five 
piastres,  he  admitted  that  such  was  the  case, 
and  that  the  Frank  was  a  far  cleverer  man 
than  the  barber  could  ever  hope  to  be. 

Social  life  among  the  Bulgarians  differs 
little  from  that  of"  the  Greeks,  save  in  the 
greater  ascendancy  the  Bulgarian  wives  of 
the  working  classes  have  over  their  hus- 
bands. This  advantage  is  probably  derived 
from  the  masculine  manner  in  which  they 
share  in  the  hardy  toil,  working  by  the  side 
of  their  husbands,  and  by  their  personal  exer- 
tions gaining  almost  as  much  as  the  men  do. 
The  care  of  clothing  the  family  also  devolves 
entirely  upon  them,  besides  which  they 
have  to  attend  to  their  domestic  duties,  which 
are  always  performed  with  care,  cleanliness, 
and  activity.  Simple  as  these  tasks  may  be, 
they  require  time,  which  the  housewife  al- 
ways manages  to  find.  The  well-beaten 
earthen  floor  is  always  neatly  swept,  the 
ruga  and  bedding  carefully  brushed  and 
folded  up,  and  the  copper  cooking  utensils 
well  scoured  and  ranged  in  their  places.  The 
cookery  is  simple  but  very  palatable,  espe- 
cially the  pastry,  which  is  excellent ;  whilst 
the  treacle  and  other  provisions  stored  away 
for  the  winter  are  wholesome  and  good. 

Some  uninformed  authors  have,  I  believe, 
stated  that  not  only  are  the  Bulgarian  men 
seldom  to  be  seen  in  a  state  of  sobriety,  but 
that  the  women  also  indulge  to  a  great  ex- 
tent in  the  vice  of  drunkenness.  So  far  as  I 
am  able  to  judge,  this  statement  is  utterly 
groundless  ;  for  no  woman  in  the  east,  what- 
ever her  nationality,  disgraces  herself  by 
drinking  to  excess  in  the  shops  where  spirit- 
uous drinks  are  sold,  or  is  ever  seen  in  the 
streets  in  a  state  of  intoxication.  The  man 
certainly  likes  his  glass,  and  on  occasions 
freely  indulges  in  it  ;  but  excesses  are  com- 
mitted only  on  feast-da}'s,  when  the  whole 
village  is  given  up  to  joviality  and  merri- 
ment. 

The  townspeople  seldom  indulge  in  these 
festivities  ;  but  tied  down  to  a  sedentary 
life,  cheered  by  no  view  of  the  open  country, 
nor  by  fresh  air  and  the  rural  pursuits  con- 
genial to  their  nature,  they  lead  a  monoto- 
nous existence,  divided  between  their  homes 
and  their  calling.  The  women  on  their  side 
fare  no  better,  and  with  the  exception  of  pay- 
ing and  receiving  calls  on  feast-days,  or  tak- 
ing a  promenade,  keep  much  within  doors, 
occupying  th'  mseives  with  needlework  and 
taking  an  active  part  in  their  domestic  affairs. 
This  quiet  uniform  life  is  occasionally  bright- 
ened by  an  evening  party,  or  even  a  ball,  if 
the   deficiency   in    the   arrangement   of   I  lie 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  TURKEY. 

rooms,  the  refreshments,  and  especially  the 
sans  gene  observed  with  regard  to  dress,  per- 
mit of  the  name.  One  of  these  festive  scenes 
was  illuminated  by  large  home-made  tallow 
candles,  supported  by  candelabra  of  Viennese 
manufacture,  further  supplemented  by  an- 
other innovation  in  the  shape  of  a  pair  of  ele- 
gant snuffers,  which  fortunately  obviated  the 
usual  performance  with  the  fingers,  by  which 
the  ball-rooms  are  usually  perfumed  with  the 
odor  of  burnt  mutton  chops.  Setting  aside 
minor  details,  my  attention  was  much  at- 
tracted by  the  queer  versatility  of  the  band, 
which  suddenly  changed  from  the  national 
Iwra  to  an  old-fashioned  polka  which  had 
just  been  introduced  as  a  great  novelty,  but 
was  indulged  in  only  by  married  couples,  or 
timid  brothers  and  sisters,  who  held  each 
other  at  so  respectful  a  distance  that  another 
couple  might  easily  have  passed  between 
them.  But  the  greatest  charm  of  the  gather- 
ing was  the  coup  d'ceil  that  embraced  dress, 
deportment,  and  decorations.  The  dress  was 
as  varied  in  shape  and  material  as  the  forms 
of  the  wearers.  Double  and  triple  fur  coats, 
according  to  age  and  taste,  safely  sheltered 
.  the  majority  of  the  gentlemen  from  cold  and 
draughts ;  well-fitting  frock  coats  distin- 
guished the  few  comme  ilfaut  officials  ;  while 
dress  coats  of  Parisian  cut  distinguished  the 
quiet  and  apparently  gentlemanlike  youths 
brought  up  in  Europe,  and  contrasted  with 
the  less  elegant  toilettes  of  their  un travelled 
brethren  dressed  a  la  Bulgare. 

The  variety  in  the  dress  of  the  ladies  was 
equally  diverting.  Some  wore  their  fur 
jackets  over  rich  silk  dresses,  others,  more 
fashionable,  dispensed  with  the  weight  of  this 
unnecessary  article  ;  while  the  heads  of  all  of 
them  sparkled  with  jewelry.  Crinoline,  often 
heard  of  under  the  name  of  "Malakoff,'' 
but  unseen  in  the  town  before  1855,  was  sup- 
posed to  be  introduced  into  the  room  by  a 
German  Jewish  lady,  an  old  resident  in  the 
town,  and  was  so  proudly  displayed  by  her 
in  all  its  proportions,  that  it  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  a  homely  old  Bulgarian  gospoyer, 
who,  in  a  simple  manner,  quietly  turned  up 
the  hem  of  her  dress  and  displayed  to  a  small 
section  of  the  astonished  assembly  an  ingeni- 
ous substitute  for  the  crinoline  made  of  Tlve 
Times  newspaper  1 

The  chapter  on  Peasant-holdings  treats  at 
some  length  of  the  Bulgarian  peasant,  of  his 
capacity  for  work,  and  the  amount  of  ease 
and  prosperity  he  is  able  to  attain  in  spite  of 
the  many  drawbacks  that  surround  him. 
His  prosperity  is  due  to  two  sources — the 
modesty  of  his  wants,  and  the  activity  of  his 
whole  family.  The  fruits  of  such  a  system 
are  naturally  good  when  the  soil,  climate,  and 
other  natural  advantages  favor  it. 

But  some  parts  of  Bulgaria  are  far  from 
being  the  Utopia  some  newspaper  corre- 
spondents have  represented  it,  with  vines 
hanging  over  every  cottage-door,  and  milk 
and  honey  flowing  in  the  land.  Nothing  but 
long  residence  and  personal  experience  can 
enable  one  to  arrive  at  a  true  estimate  of  such 
matters. 

Though  in  some  parts  I  found  the  scenery 
delightful,  the  prosperity  of  the  inhabitants 
astonishing,  and  Moslems  and  Christians 
rivalling  each  other  in  hospitable  kindness  to 
the  traveller,  some  spots  were  anything  but 
romantic  c-r  prosperous,  and  far  from  happy- 
looking.  Some  villages,  in  particular,  I  no- 
ticed in  the  midst  of  a  dreary  plain,  such  as 
the  traveller  may  see  on  the  road  from  Ro- 
dosto  to  Adriauople,  where  the  soil  looks  dry 
and  barren,  and  the  pastures  grow  yellow 
and  parched  before  their  time,  and  where  fly- 
ing bands  of  Circassian  thieves  and  cut- 
throats hover  about  like  birds  of  prey.  I 
was  once  travelling  through  the  country,  rid- 
ing the  whole  of  one  day  on  such  bad  roads 
that  the  mud  often  reached  up  to  my  horse's 
knees,  and  the  carriage  containing  my  maid 
and  the  provisions  often  came  to  a  dead  stop, 
while  the  rain  poured  incessantly.  The 
journey  appeared  interminable,  and  as  dark- 


ness crept  on  and  several  miles  of  road  still 
separated  us  from  our  projected  halting- 
place,  I  made  up  my  mind  to  stop  at  an  iso- 
lated village  for  the  night.  So  traversing 
fresh  pools  of  mud  we  entered  the  hamlet, 
and  were  met  by  the  Kodja-Bashi,  a  poorly- 
clad,  miserable-looking  individual,  who  led 
our  party  into  his  farm-yard.  On  alighting 
from  my  horse  I  was  ushered  into  a  dark, 
bare,  dismal  hovel,  without  windows,  and 
lighted  only  by  a  hole  in  the  roof,  through 
which  escaped  some  of  the  smoke  from  a 
few  dung-cakes  smouldering  in  a  corner. 
One  or  two  water-jars  stood  near  the  door, 
and  an  earthen  pot,  serving  for  all  culinary 
purposes,  was  placed  by  the  Are,  in  front  of 
which  was  spread  a  tattered  mat  occupied  by 
a  few  three-legged  stools.  A  bundle  of  unin- 
viting rags  and  cushions,  the  family  bed- 
ding, was  stowed  in  a  corner,  and  in  another 
were  seen  a  few  pots  and  pans,  the  whole 
"  table  service"  of  the  occupants. 

This  hovel  was  attached  to  a  similar  ono 
opening  into  it,  where  I  heard  some  bustle 
going  on.  I  was  told  that  a  member  of  the 
family  who  occupied  it  and  was  seriously  ill 
was  being  removed  to  a  neighbor's  house. 
Much  annoyed  at  having  caused  so  much 
trouble  and  disturbance  to  the  unfortunate 
sufferer,  I  asked  my  host  why  he  had  not 
placed  me  in  another  cottage.  "  Well,  gos- 
poyer,"  answered  he,  with  an  apologetic 
gesture,  "  poor  and  wretched  as  my  home  is, 
it  is  the  best  the  village  possesses.  The  rest 
are  not  fit  to  kennel  your  dogs  in.  As  for 
my  daughter,  I  could  not  but  remove  her,  as 
her  cries  during  the  night  would  prevent 
your  sleeping."  I  inquired  her  complaint, 
and  was  told  that  she  was  in  high  fever,  and 
suffered  from  sharp  pains  all  over  her  body. 
There  was  no  doctor  to  attend  her,  nor  had 
she  any  medicine  but  the  decoctions  prepared 
for  her  bj'  the  old  bulkas. 

I  visited  the  poor  creature  and  gave  what 
help  I  could  ;  but,  being  by  no  means  reas- 
sured as  to  the  nature  of  her  malady,  and  un- 
willing to  sleep  in  the  vicinity  of  an  infected 
room,  I  ordered  the  carriage  to  be  placed  un- 
der a  shed  and  proposed  to  pass  the  night  in 
it.  The  host,  however,  on  hearing  this,  told 
me  that  it  was  quite  impracticable,  as  the 
village  dogs  were  so  famished  that  they 
would  be  sure  to  attack  the  carriage  for  the 
sake  of  the  leather  on  it.  "I  have  taken  the 
precaution,"  he  added,  "  of  removing  ever)' 
part  that  is  liable  to  be  destroyed,  but  there 
is  no  telling  what  these  animals  will  do. "  I 
then  ordered  the  hamper  to  be  brought  in 
and  supper  to  be  prepared  ;  but  on  sitting 
down  on  the  floor  to  partake  of  it  we  discov- 
ered that  our  provision  of  bread  was  exhaust- 
ed, and  learnt  that  not  a  morsel  was  procura- 
ble in  the  village.  Our  host  explained  this 
by  saying,  "  You  see,  gospoyer,  our  village  is 
so  poor  and  miserable  that  we  have  no  drink- 
able water,  and  our  bulkas  have  to  fetch  it 
from  a  distance  of  three  miles.  We  have  no 
fuel  either,  for  the  village  has  no  forest,  and 
we  content  ourselves  with  what  you  see  on 
the  hearth.  As  for  bread,  it  is  a  luxury  we 
seldom  enjoy  ;  millet  flour  mixed  with  wa- 
ter into  a  paste  and  baked  on  the  ashes  is 
our  substitute  for  it  ;  it  does  for  us,  but 
would  not  please  you." 

In  the  mean  time  the  women  and  children 
had  gathered  round  me  in  the  little  room, 
all  looking  so  poor,  fever-stricken,  and  mis- 
erable, and  casting  such  looks  of  eager  sur- 
prise at  the  exhibition  of  eatables  before  me, 
that  I  felt  positively  sick  at  heart  ;  all  my 
appetite  left  me,  and  distributing  my  supper 
among  the  hungry  crowd,  I  contented  myself 
with  a  cup  of  tea,  and  endeavored  to  forget 
in  sleep  the  picture  of  misery  I  had  wit- 
nessed. I  was  thankful  to  got  away  in  the 
morning,  and  am  happy  to  say  that  neither 
before  nor  since  have  I  witnessed  such  pov- 
erty and  misery  as  I  saw  in  that  village. 

The  marked  slowness  of  perception  in  the 
character  of  the  Bulgarian  peasants,  and 
their  willingness  to  allow  others  to  think  and 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


art  for  them  In  great  matters,  is  not  so  ap 
parent  when  the  immediate  interests  of  the 
village  or  community  are  concerned.  Be- 
fore referring  these  to  the  higher  authorities, 
they  meet  and  quietly  discuss  their  affairs, 
ami  often  settle  the  differences  among  them- 
selves. The  respect  the  Bulgarian  entertains 
for  the  clergy  and  for  the  enlightened  por- 
tion of  his  fellow-countrymen  is  so  great  that 
he  allows  himself  to  be  entirely  guided  by 
them,  evincing  in  small  things  as  well  as 
great  the  feeling  of  harmony  and  union  that 
binds  the  whole  people  together.  But  the 
reverse  of  this  disposition  is  manifested  by 
the  Bulgarians,  more  especially  the  peasants, 
towards  any  foreign  element,  and  particularly 
towards  the  Turkish  authorities.  Obedient 
and  submissive  as  they  have  generally  shown 
themselves  under  the  Ottoman  rule,  they 
have  inwardly  always  disliked  and  distrust- 
ed it,  saying  that  the  government  with  re- 
gard to  their  country,  its  richest  field  of  har- 
vest, has  only  one  object  in  view — that  of 
getting  as  much  out  of  it  as  possible. 

This  prevalent  idea,  not  altogether  ill- 
founded,  gave  to  the  Bulgarian  character 
that  rapacity  and  love  of  gain  which,  being 
developed  by  late  events,  in  the  midst  of  gen- 
eral ruin  and  loss  of  property,  tempted  him 
to  try  to  get  what  he  could  of  what  had  been 
left,  without  much  scruple  as  to  the  means. 
When  unmerited  calamities  befall  a  people, 
and  oppression  long  weighs  heavily  upon 
them,  the  sense  of  justice  and  humanity  is 
gradually  lost  and  replaced  by  a  spirit  of 
vindictiveness  which  incites  to  ignoble  and 
cruel  actions.  This  ought  not  to  surprise  the 
world  in  the  case  of  the  Bulgarians,  when 
their  national  life  during  the  last  two  years  is 
taken  into  consideration  ;  for  what  is  it  but  a 
series  of  unspeakable  outrages  by  their  ene- 
mies, and  destruction  by  those  who  pro- 
fessed themselves  their  friends  ? 

The  Bulgarians,  however,  as  I  have  known 
thetri  in  more  peaceful  times,  never  appeared 
to  possess  as  national  characteristics  the  vices 
that  hasty  and  partial  judges  arguing  from 
special  instances  have  attributed  to  them. 
On  the  contrary,  they  seemed  a  peace-loving, 
hard-working  people,  possessing  many  do- 
mestic virtues  which,  if  properly  developed 
under  a  good  government,  might  make  the 
strength  of  an  honest  and  promising  state. 

CHAPTER    II. 

THE  GREEKS  OF  TURKEY. 

Importance  of  the  Greeks  at  the  Present  Moment— 
Their  Attitude— The  Greek  Peasant  as  Contrasted 
with  the  Bulgarian— Ilis  Family— Eloquence— Patriot- 
ism— Comforts— The  Women— A  Greek  Girl— Wo- 
men of  the  Towns  of  the  Upper  Class— Of  the  Lower 
Class— Wives  and  Husbands— Greek  Parties— The 
Conservatives  and  the  Progressives— A  Conversation 
on  Greek  Go-a-head-ness— Physical  Features  of  the 
Modern  Greek— Character— General  Prejudice— A 
Prussian  Estimate— Greek  Vices— An  Adventure  with 
Greek  Brigands— Adclphe— Unscrupulousness  in  Busi- 
ness—Causes and  Precedents— Juwb  and  Greeks- 
Summary. 

All  eyes  are  now  turned  upon  the  Greek 
race  as  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in 
the  Eastern  Question.  The  future  of  South- 
Eastern  Europe  is  seen  to  lie  in  the  balance 
between  Greek  and  Slav,  and  people's  opin- 
ions incline  to  one  side  or  the  other  as  dread 
of  Russia  or  distrust  of  "  Greek  guile"  gets 
the  upper  hand.  I  have  nothing  to  say  here 
about  the  people  of  free  Hellas  :  I  have  only 
to  tell  what  I  have  witnessed  of  the  charac- 
ter and  condition  of  the  subject  Greeks  in 
Turkey.  These,  though  they  shared  in  the 
national  effort  of  1821-9,  reaped  little  of  the 
fruits.  The  Greeks  of  Macedonia,  Thessaly, 
and  Thrace  did  not  gain  the  freedom  accord- 
ed to  the  people  of  "  Greece  Proper, "  though 
their  condition  was  somewhat  improved. 
But  they  are  only  biding  their  time.  They 
know  that  their  free  countrymen  are  anxious 
to  share  with  them  the  results  of  the  glorious 
struggle  of  1821.  They  know  that  centuries 
of  subjection  and  oppression  have  demoral- 
ized and  debased  the  nation  ;  and  they  have 
long  been  striving  with  their  whole  strength 


to  prepare  themselves  for  freedom.  They 
have  employed  the  time  of  transition  with 
great  moderation  and  judgment.  Those 
whom  the  Porte  has  appointed  to  high  offices 
have  filled  their  posts  with  conscientious- 
ness, fidelity,  and  dignity.  Taught  worldly 
wisdom  in  the  school  of  adversity,  they  have 
avoided  premature  conspiracy  and  rebellion, 
and  have  directed  all  their  energies  to  educat- 
ing the  race  for  its  future.  "  Improve  and 
wait  patiently"  is  the  motto  of  the  Greeks  in 
Turkey. 

The  Greek  peasant  differs  greatly  from  the 
Bulgarian.  Agriculture  is  not  all  the  world 
to  him  ;  his  love  for  the  pursuit  is  decidedly 
moderate  unless  he  sees  an  opening  for  en- 
terprise and  speculation,  as  in  the  growth  of 
some  special  kind  of  produce  which  he  can 
sell  in  the  raw  condition  or  as  manufactured 
goods.  Unlike  the  Bulgarian,  his  whole 
family  is  not  chained  to  the  soil  as  the  one 
business  of  life.  When  the  paterfamilias  can 
dispense  with  the  services  of  some  of  his 
daughters,  they  leave  their  home  in  pursuit 
of  occupation,  and  his  sons  in  the  same  man- 
ner are  allowed  to  quit  the  paternal  roof  in 
search  of  some  more  lucrative  employment 
elsewhere.  It  is  thus  that  the  Greek  is  to  be 
found  in  every  nook  and  corner  of  Turkey, 
established  among  his  own  kindred  or  with 
foreigners,  and  following  various  professions 
and  callings,  as  doctors,  lawyers,  schoolmas- 
ters ;  whilst,  descending  to  a  lower  scale,  we 
find  him  employed  in  every  town  and  village 
as  a  petty  tradesman,  mason,  carpenter,  shoe- 
maker, musician,  in  all  which  occupations  he 
manages  by  dint  of  energy,  perseverance,  and 
address  to  obtain  a  modest  competence,  or 
sometimes  even  to  reach  prosperity. 

I  remember,  among  other  instances  of  the 
kind,  the  case  of  a  Greek  peasant  family  in 
the  district  of  B .  The  father  was  a  re- 
spectable man,  who  owned  a  small  property 
in  his  native  village,  and  whose  quiver  was 
filled  with  eight  children.  The  eldest  re- 
mained to  assist  on  the  farm  ;  two  others  of 
tender  age  also  remained  under  the  mother's 
care  ;  the  other  five,  including  a  girl,  left 
their  home,  and  came  to  the  town.  One  of 
the  boys  and  the  girl  took  service  with  me  ; 
a  second  boy  apprenticed  himself  to  a  pho- 
tographer, another  became  a  painter  of 
church  pictures,  and  the  fourth  a  cigarette- 
maker.  The  salaries  these  young  peasants 
received  were  at  first  very  meagre ;  but  all 
the  same  the  four  boys  clubbed  their  savings 
together,  and  after  a  time  sent  for  their 
younger  brother  to  live  in  town  in  order  to 
enjoy  the  benefit  of  receiving  a  good  educa- 
tion. Six  years  passed,  during  which  the 
boy  and  his  pretty  and  intelligent  sister  re- 
mained in  my  house  ;  both  learned  to  speak 
English,  the  boy  having  studied  the  language 
grammatically  in  his  leisure  moments.  They 
are  now  honest,  intelligent  servants,  perfect 
in  the  performance  of  their  duties,  and  de- 
voted to  my  family.  The  three  apprentices, 
through  their  steadiness,  good  conduct,  and 
energy,  have  become  proficient  enough  in 
their  different  callings  to  set  up  for  them- 
selves, while  the  boy  at  school  is  one  of  the 
most  advanced  students  of  the  Gymnasium. 

The  intellectual  position  of  the  Greeks  is 
far  superior  to  that  of  the  Bulgarians.  They 
are  cleverer,  and  they  and  their  children  are 
more  advanced  in  education.  They  display 
a  great  interest  in  passing  events,  as  well  as 
in  politics,  a  knowledge  of  which  they  obtain 
by  means  of  the  numerous  Greek  newspapers 
they  receive  from  Athens,  Constantinople, 
and  all  the  large  towns  of  Turkey.  These 
journals  find  their  way  to  the  remotest  ham- 
lets, one  or  two  being  sufficient  to  make  the 
round  of  a  village.  They  also  possess  other 
literature  in  the  shape  of  the  history  of  their 
country,  biographies  of  some  of  their  illus- 
trious ancestors,  and  national  songs  in  the 
vernacular.  All  these  make  a  deep  impres- 
sion upon  the  entire  population,  who,  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  labors  of  the  day,  gather 
i  together  in  the  taverns  and  coffee-houses  to 


discuss  matters,  talking  excellent  sense  ovei 
the  coffee-cup,  or  waxing  hot  and  uproarious 
over  their  wine  and  raki. 

The  Greek  peasant  displays  none  of  the 
embarrassment  and  tonguetiedness  of  the 
Bulgarian.  I  have  often  met  with  instances 
of  this  :  one  especially  struck  me  which  hap- 
pened in  the  early  part  of  last  summer  in  the 

vilayet  of  B .     Some  Bashi-bazouks  had 

entered  a  village,  and  committed  some  of 
their  usual  excesses  ;  but  the  peasants  had 
found  time  to  send  away  their  wives  and 
daughters  to  a  place  of  safety.  On  the  fol- 
lowing clay  a  body  of  fifty  Greeks  came  to 
complain  to  the  authorities.  In  order  to 
render  their  claims  more  effective,  they  ap- 
plied for  protection  at  the  different  Consul- 
ates. I  happened  to  be  at  luncheon  at  one 
of  these  Consulates,  and  the  Consul  ordered 
the  men  to  be  shown  into  the  dining-room  to 
make  their  statements.  One  at  once  stepped 
forward  to  give  an  account  of  the  affair, 
which  he  related  with  so  much  eloquence 
and  in  such  pure  modern  Greek'  that  the 
Consul,  suspecting  him  to  be  some  lawyer  in 
disguise,  or  a  special  advocate  of  Greek 
grievances,  set  him  aside,  and  called  upon 
another  to  give  his  version.  Several  looked 
questioningly  at  each  other,  but  with  no  sign 
of  embarrassment  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  exT 
pression  on  each  face  betokened  natural  self- 
confidence,  and  meant  in  this  instance  to  say, 
"  We  can  each  tell  the  tale  equally  well,  but 
I  had  better  begin  than  you." 

Patriotism  is  highly  developed  among  the 
Greek  peasants,  who  are  fully  aware  of  the 
meaning  of  the  word  patris,  and  taught  to 
bear  in  mind  that  half  a  century  ago  free 
Hellas  formed  part  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  ; 
that  its  inhabitants,  like  themselves,  were  a 
subject  people,  and  owe  the  freedom  they 
now  enjoy  to  self-sacrifice  and  individual 
exertion.  "They  are  our  elder  brothers," 
say  they,  "  who  have  stepped  into  their  in- 
heritance before  us.  There  is  a  just  God  for 
us  as  well  1" 

The  wants  of  the  Greek  are  more  numer- 
ous than  those  of  the  Bulgarians.  Their 
dress,  for  instance,  is  not  limited  to  a  coarse 
suit  of  aba  and  a  sheepskin  gougla,  but  is 
sometimes  made  of  fine  cloth  and  other  rich 
materials,  and  includes  shoes  and  stockings. 
The  culinary  department  also  demands  more 
utensils  ;  besides  which,  tables,  table-linen, 
knives  and  forks  are  often  seen  at  their 
meals.  The  bedding  they  use  is  more  com- 
plete, and  does  not  consist  solely  of  rugs,  as 
with  the  Bulgarians.  Their  houses  are  bet- 
ter built,  with  some  regard  to  comfort  and 
appearance,  frequently  with  two  stories,  be- 
sides possessing  chimneys  and  windows 
(when  safe  to  do  so).  The  village  schools 
are  better  organized,  and  kept  under  the 
careful  supervision  of  the  Society  for  their 
direction,  and  the  churches  are  more  numer- 
ous. The  women  are  less  employed  in  field 
work,  and  consequently  more  refined  in  their 
tastes,  prettier  in  appearance,  and  more  care- 
ful and  elegant  in  their  dress.  The  Greek 
peasant  girl  knows  the  value  of  her  personal 
charms,  and  disdains  to  load  herself  with  the 
tarnished  trinkets,  gaudy  flowers,  and  other 
wonderful  productions  in  which  the  Bulga- 
rian maiden  delights.  A  skirt  of  some  bright- 
colored  silk  or  mixed  stuff  and  a  cloth  jacket 
embroidered  with  gold  form  the  principal 
part  of  her  gala  costume,  covered  with  a 
fur-lined  pelisse  for  out-of-door  wear.  Her 
well-combed  hair  is  plaited  in  numerous 
tresses,  and  surmounted  by  the  small  Greek 
cap,  which  is  decorated  with  gold  and  silver 
coins  like  those  she  wears  as  a  necklace. 
She  is  not  to  be  bought,  like  the  Bulgarian, 
for  a  sum  of  money  paid  to  her  father  as  an 
equivalent  for  her  services  ;  but  according  to 
her  means  is  dowered  and  given  in  marriage, 
like  the  maidens  of  classical  times.  Still  the  ( 
peasant  girl  is  neither  lazy  nor  useless  ;  she 
takes  an  active  part  in  the  duties  of  the 
household,  is  early  taught  to  knit  and  spin 
the   silk,  flax,  wool,   or  cotton  which    the 


s 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


mother  requires  for  the  different  home-made 
tissues  of  the  family.  She  leads  her  father's 
flock  to  the  pasture,  and  under  the  title  of 
Voskopouki  kindles  a  flame  in  the  heart  of  the 
village  youth  and  inspires  the  rustic  muse. 
On  Sundays  and  feast-days  she  enters  heartily 
into  all  the  innocent  pleasures  of  her  retired 
and  isolated  life.  She  has  more  pride  than 
the  Bulgarian  ;  and  although  in  married  life 
she  is  submissive  and  docile,  she  possesses  a 
greater  depth  and  richness  of  love.  I  have 
known  instances  of  peasant  girls  exchanging 
vows  with  youths  of  their  village  who  are 
leaving  their  home  in  search  of  fortune,  and 
patiently  waiting  for  them  and  refusing  all 
offers  in  the  mean  time.  In  most  cases  this 
devotion  is  requited  by  equal  constancy  on 
the  part  of  the  lover  ;  but  should  she  be  de- 
serted, her  grief  is  so  terrible  that  she  not 
seldom  dies  from  the  blow. 

If  there  is  more  than  one  daughter  in  a 
family,  some  from  the  age  of  twelve  or  four- 
teen are  usually  sent  to  town  and  placed  out 
as  servants,  with  the  double  object  of  giving 
them  the  opportunity  of  seeing  more  of  the 
■world  and  the  means  of  earning  something 
for  their  own  maintenance.  These  earnings 
as  taey  are  acquired  are  converted  into  gold 
coins  and  strung  into  necklaces. 

When  these  girls  are  honest  and  good, 
and  fall  into  proper  hands,  they  are  usually 
adopted  by  the  family  with  whom  they  take 
service,  under  the  title  of  ifivxoiraida.  On 
reaching  the  age  of  twenty-five  or  twenty- 
seven  a  trousseau  is  given  to  them  with  a 
small  dowry,  and  they  are  married  to  some 
respectable  artisan.  Those  simply  hired  as 
servants  either  marry  in  the  towns  or  do  so 
on  returning  to  their  native  village. 

The  Greek  peasant  women  are  as  a  rule 
clean  and  industrious,  fond  mothers  and  vir- 
tuous wives.  The  best  proof  of  their  moral- 
ity is  in  the  long  absences  many  husbands  are 
obliged  to  make  from  their  homes,  which  are 
attended  by  no  unfaithful  results.  In  some 
instances  for  a  period  of  even  twenty  years 
the  wife  becomes  the  sole  director  of  the  pro- 
perty, which  she  manages  with  care-  and 
wisdom,  and  the  only  guardian  of  the  chil- 
dren left  in  her  charge. 

The  peasants  who  still  cling  to  the  soil 
plod  away  at  their  daily  toil  in  very  much 
the  same  way  as  the  Bulgarians,  but  show  a 
greater  aptitude  for  rearing  the  silkworm  and 
growing  olives  and  grapes.  The  Greek 
peasants  are  not  models  of  perfection  ;  but 
as  a  body  they  are  better  than  any  other 
race  in  Turkey,  and  under  a  good  govern- 
ment they  are  certain  to  improve  and  de- 
velop much  faster  than  either  the  Bulgari- 
ans or  the  Turks. 

The  Greek  women  of  the  towns,  according 
to  their  station  and  the  amount  of  refinement 
and  modern  ideas  they  have  been  imbued 
with,  display  in  their  manners  and  mode  of 
living  the  virtues  and  faults  inherent  in  the 
Greek  character.  I  must  in  justice  state  that 
the  former  exceed  the  latter  ;  their  virtues 
consist  principally  in  their  quality  of  good 
honest  wives,  and  in  the  simple  lives  they 
are  usually  content  to  lead  in  their  homes. 
The  enlightenment  and  conversational  talents 
of  some  of  the  better  class  do  not  fall  far 
short  of  those  of  European  ladies.  Those 
less  endowed  by  education  and  nature  have 
a  quiet  modest  bearing,  and  evince  a  great 
desire  to  improve.  The  most  striking  faults 
in  the  Greek  woman's  character  are  fondness 
of  dress  and  display,  vanity,  and  jealousy  of 
the  better  circumstances  of  her  neighbors. 
The  spirit  of  envious  rivalry  in  dress  and 
outward  appearance  is  often  carried  to  such 
a  pass  that  the  real  comforts  of  home-life  are 
sacrificed,  and  many  live  poorly  and  dress 
meanly  on  ordinary  occasions  in  order  to  dis- 
play a  well-furnished  drawing-room  and  ex- 
pensive   holiday    costumes    to    the    public. 

When  living  in  the  town  of  N ,  I  was 

taken  into  the  confidence  of  the  Archbishop's 
niece,  who  was  my^neighbor.  She  confessed 
to  me  that  on  promenade  days  she  regularly 


stationed  her  servant  at  the  end  of  the  street 
in  order  to  inspect  the  toilette  of  her  rival, 
the  wife  of  the  richest  chorbadji,  so  that  she 
might  be  able  to  eclipse  her. 

Greek  ladies  are  fond  and  devoted  mothers, 
but  they  are  not  systematic  in  rearing  their 
children.  This  has,  however,  been  remedied 
in  many  cases  by  children  of  both  sexes  be- 
ing placed  from  a  very  earl)-  age  in  the  care 
of  governesses,  or  at  school,  where  the  more 
regular  training  they  receive  cannot  fail  to 
have  beneficial  results. 

The  life  of  women  of  the  working  classes 
is  still  more  homely  and  retired,  as  it  is  con- 
sidered an  impropriety  to  be  seen  much  out 
of  doors,  especially  in  the  case  of  young 
girls,  whom  prejudice  keeps  very  secluded, 
even  to  the  length  of  seldom  allowing  them 
to  go  to  church.  When  abroad,  however, 
their  fondness  for  display  is  equal  to  that  of 
their  richer  sisters,  whose  toilettes,  however 
novel  or  complicated,  in  cities  like  Constan- 
tinople and  Smyrna,  are  sure  to  be  copied  by 
the  fishermen's  or  washerwomen's  daughters. 
In  provincial  towns  like  Rodosto  and  Adri- 
anople,  the  love  of  dress  finds  its  satisfaction 
in  bright  colors  and  wreaths  of  artificial  flow- 
ers, especially  the  much  coveted  carnation, 
when  out  of  season,  which  is  worn  by  some 
as  a  love-trophy  ;  for  it  must  have  been  given 
by  some  lover  on  the  feast-day.  (ireek  girls 
are  very  clever  at  needlework  and  embroid- 
ery ;  but  their  life  is  nevertheless  monoto- 
nous, and  they  have  little  variety  of  occupa- 
tion and  amusement.  This  is  owing  in  part 
to  the  exclusion  of  women  of  all  races  in 
Turkey  from  occupations  in  shops,  and  to 
the  absence  of  manufactories,  which,  with 
the  exception  of  some  silk  factories,  do  not 
exist  in  the  country.  Those  in  the  silk-grow- 
ing districts,  however,  give  employment  to  a 
number  of  Greek  girls,  who  show  great  apti- 
tude for  this  branch  of  industry,  and  often 
become  directresses  of  establishments  in 
which  Armenian  and  other  women  are  em- 
ployed. 

The  affection  of  a  Greek  wife  for  her  hus- 
band is  joined  to  a  jealous  care  of  his  inter- 
est ;  she  will  strive  to  hide  his  faults  and 
weaknesses,  and  the  disinterested  devotion 
with  which  she  will  cling  to  him  in  prosper- 
ity and  adversity  is  astonishing.     A  woman 

belonging  to  the  town  of  S ,  on  hearing 

that  her  husband  had  been  arrested  on  a 
charge  of  complicity  with  brigands,  left  her 
home  and  five  children  to  the  care  of  a  blind 
grandmother,  and  set  out  on  foot  on  a  three 
days'  journey  to  the  town  where  he  was  to 
be  tried.  He  was  condemned  to  seven  years' 
imprisonment,   and    sent    to  the  prison   at 

A ,  whither  she  followed  him.     Young 

and  pretty,  entirely  friendless,  and  without 
means  of  subsistence,  she  lingered  about  the 
Greek  quarter  until  her  sad  tale  gained  her  an 
asylum  in  a  compassionate  family.  She  toil- 
ed hard  to  gain  a  small  pittance,  which  she 
divided  between  herself  and  her  unhappy 
partner  shut  up  in  the  common  prison.  The 
dreadful  news  was  brought  to  her  that  three 
of  her  children  were  dead,  that  her  house 
was  falling  to  pieces,  and  that  her  aged  and 
afflicted  mother  was  unable  to  take  care  of 
the  two  surviving  little  ones.  Unmoved  by 
these  calamities,  she  refused  to  quit  the  town 

of  A until,  through  the  instrumentality 

of  some  influential  persons  whose  sympathies 
she  had  enlisted,  her  husband's  period  of 
punishment  was  shortened. 

Greek  society  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  conservative  party  and  the  pro- 
gressive. The  former,  in  the  provincial 
towns,  are  jealous  of  their  rights  and  privi- 
leges as  elders  of  the  community  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  nation  in  the  Medjliss.  In 
many  instances  these  side  with  the  authori- 
ties in  acts  of  injustice,  sometimes  from  tim- 
idity and  sometimes  from  interested  motives. 
This  small  retrograde  class  is  also  strongly 
opposed  to  the  progress  of  education,  and 
often  hinders  it  by  stint  of  money  and  general 
hostility  to  all  changes. 


The  second  class  consists  of  the  educated 
members  of  the  community,  who  earn  their 
fortunes  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  rest  of 
the  civilized  world,  and  spend  it  liberally  in 
comforts  and  luxuries,  and  for  the  benefit  of 
the  nation — an  object  to  which  every  Greek 
tries  to  contribute  in  some  degree.  The  mot- 
to of  this  party  is  Ernbros !  (Forward  !) 
They  are  stopped  by  no  difficulties  and  over- 
come by  no  drawbacks,  either  in  their  per- 
sonal interests  or  those  of  the  nation.  Their 
success  in  enterprise  should  no  longer  (as  for- 
merly) be  attributed  to  disloyalty,  dishonesty, 
and  intrigue — in  these  respects  there  is  no 
reason  for  believing  them  worse  than  their 
neighbors— but  to  the  wonderful  energy  and 
ability  they  show  in  all  their  undertakings. 
I  heard  a  conversation  some  time  ago  be- 
tween two  medical  celebrities  of  Constanti- 
nople with  reference  to  the  Greek  spirit  of 
enterprise  and  ambition.  One  praised  their 
enterprise  as  a  promising  quality,  and,  to  use 
his  own  expression,  said,  "There  is  an  im- 
mense amount  of  '  go  '  in  the  Greek." 

"Go!"  repeated  the  other,  waxing  hot, 
"  Too  much  so,  I  believe  :  there  is  no  telling 
where  a  Greek's  enterprising  spirit  may  not 
lead  him,  or  where  his  ambition  will  stop  ! 
Listen  to  my  experience  on  the  subject  and 
judge  for  yourself.  Some  years  ago  I  was 
asked  by  a  good  old  Greek  I  knew  very  well 
to  take  his  son,  a  youth  of  twenty,  into  my 
service.  According  to  the  father's  recom- 
mendation, he  was  a  good  Greek  scholar 
and  knew  a  little  Latin.  I  asked  the  father 
in  what  capacity  I  was  to  engage  him. 
'  Any  you  like,'  was  the  reply:  '  let  him  be 
your  servant — your  slave. '  '  Very  well  ;  but 
he  will  have  to  clean  my  boots  and  look  after 
my  clothes  !'  '  iro/U  aaXa  '  was  the  response, 
and  I  engaged  his  son. 

"  On  the  following  day  my  new  valet  en- 
tered upon  his  duties.  He  was  a  good-look- 
ing, smart,  and  intelligent  fellow,  and  at  first 
exact  and  able  in  the  performance  of  his 
functions  ;  but  gradually  he  became  lax,  ab- 
sent in  manner,  and  negligent  ;  although 
steady  and  quiet  in  his  conduct.  One  day 
the  mystery  of  this  change  was  revealed  on 
my  returning  home  unexpectedly,  and  find- 
ing the  fellow,  instead  of  cleaning  my  boots, 
which  he  held  in  his  hand,  deeply  plunged  in 
one  of  the  medical  works  on  my  table.  In 
mj  anger  at  seeing  my  papers  and  books 
meddled  with,  I  brought  my  boots  into  con- 
tact with  his  head,  telling  him  that  if  ever  I 
caught  him  again  at  that  .eort,  of  thing,  he 
would  be  punished  more  severely.  '  Forgive 
me, '  said  he,  in  a  very  penitent  manner,  and 
walked  demurely  out  of  the  room.  He 
showed,  however,  no  signs  of  improvement, 
and  subsequently  I  discovered  him  commit- 
ting no  less  a  piece  of  impertinence  than 
copying  some  prescriptions  that  lay  on  my 
desk.  This  was  too  much  ;  so,  as  a  punish- 
ment, I  made  him  take  one  of  the  potions  ; 
but  on  the  next  day  he  calmly  told  me  that 
the  iatrico  had  done  him  good,  having  calmed 
his  blood  and  cleared  his  head  !  Of  course, 
I  dismissed  the  fellow  and  replaced  him  by 
an  Armenian,  who  answered  my  purpose  bet- 
ter, though  he  did  dive  now  and  then  rather 
extensively  into  the  larder.  For  some  years 
I  lost  sight  of  my  former  valet,  and  had  for- 
gotten his  very  existence  till  it  was  brought 
to  my  recollection  in  the  following  unex- 
pected manner.  I  one  day  received  a  press- 
ing message  to  go  at  once  to  the  house  of 

D Pasha  to  see  a  sick  child  and  hold  a 

consultation  with  his  new  hekim  bashi (doctor) 
on  its  case.  At  the  appointed  hour  I  went, 
and  on  entering  the  konak  was  ushered  into 
the  selamlik  to  await  the  arrival  of  the  other 
doctor  who  was  to  lead  me  into  the  harem. 
In  a  few  minutes  my  supposed  colleague 
walked  in,  hat  and  gold-headed  stick  in  one 
hand,  while  the  other  was  extended  to  me, 
with  the  words  '  Kalrj/xepa,  larpe'  (good-morn- 
ing, doctor).  The  face  and  voice  transfixed 
me  for  a  moment,  but  the  next  presented  to 
me  the  fact  that  my  former  valet  stood  be- 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


9 


fore  me,  claiming;  the  right  of  holding  a  con- 
sultation with  me.  Whereat  I  was  on  the 
point  of  giving  vent  to  my  indignation,  hy 
seizing  him  by  the  collar  and  ejecting  him 
from  the  apartment,  when  he  quietly  said, 
'  Excuse  me,  larpe ,  but  I  stand  before  you  in 
right  of  the  diploma  I  have  obtained  from 
Galata  Serai.  Allow  me  to  submit  it  to  your 
learned  and  honorable  inspection.'  Thee 
was  no  denying  the  fact ;  the  fellow's  diplo- 
ma was  in  perfect  order.  My  anger  cooling, 
I  consented  to  consult  with  him,  when  he 
again  incensed  me  by  venturing  to  take  a 
view  of  the  case  opposed  to  mine.  His  op- 
position, however,  was  only  momentary;  for, 
taking  the  upper  hand,  I  dictated  my  direc- 
tions to  him,  and  he,  yielding  with  a  good 
grace  to  my  experience,  carried  out  my  or- 
ders with  great  precision.  I  had  subse- 
quently many  opportunities  of  meeting  him, 
and  must  in  justice  say  that  he  turned  out 
one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Galata  Serai,  and 
the  most  grateful  man  I  have  ever  known. 
He  is  at  present  attached  to  the  Ked  Cross 
Society,  to  which  he  gives  the  greatest  satis- 
faction." 

In  feature  and  build  the  modern  Greek  still 
possesses  the  characteristic  traits  of  his  an- 
cestors. Scientific  researches  and  anatomical 
observations  made  upon  the  skulls  of  ancient 
Greeks  are  said  to  prove  that  if.  art  had  glori- 
fied to  a  slight  extent  the  splendid  models  of 
statues,  it  could  not  have  strayed  very  far 
from  the  originals.  Such  pure  and  perfect 
types  are  constantly  met  with  at  the  present 
day  in  the  modern  Greeks,  who,  as  a  rule, 
possess  fine  open  foreheads,  straight  noses, 
and  fine  eyes  full  of  fire  and  intelligence, 
furnished  with  black  lashes  and  well-defined 
eyebrows;  the  mouths  are  small  or  of  medi- 
um size,  with  a  short  upper  lip  ;  the  chin 
rather  prominent,  but  rounded.  The  entire 
physiognomy  differs  so  essentially  from  the 
other  native  types  that  it  is  impossible  to  mis- 
*  take  it.  In  stature  the  Greek  is  rather  tall 
than  otherwise,  well  made  and  well  propor- 
tioned ;  the  hands  and  feet  are  small  in  both 
sexes.  The  walk  is  graceful,  but  has  a  kind 
of  swagger  and  ease  in  it,  which,  although 
it  looks  natural  in  the  national  costume, 
seems  affected  in  the  European  dress. 

The  distinct  Greek  type,  so  noticeable  in 
certain  localities,  has  in  others  suffered  from 
the  admixture  with  foreign  elements  ;  but  we 
find  it  again  in  all  its  perfection  in  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  where  the 
Greeks  were  at  one  epoch  so  crushed  and 
denationalized  as  to  have  lost  the  use  of  their 
mother-tongue.  Some  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens of  the  Greek  race  may  be  found  in 
Smyrna,  Gemlek,  and  Pbiladar,  as  well  as 
in  more  inland  places,  such  as  Mahalitch, 
Demirdesh,  and  Kellessen. 

The  influence  and  effects  of  the  last  and 
most  important  change  must  be  carefully  fol- 
lowed and  the  transformation  already  wrought 
upon  the  nation  taken  into  consideration  be- 
fore a  fair  and  impartial  estimate  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  present  Greeks  can  be  arrived  at. 
The  nation  in  its  present  scattered  condition 
presents  great  variety  and  dissemblance ; 
but  even  these  points,  in  my  opinion,  consti- 
tute its  force  and  guarantee  its  future  pros- 
perity. No  person  well  acquainted  with 
modern  Greece  can  contest  the  vast  improve- 
ment in  the  national  character  during  the  last 
half  century,  the  moral  development  ahead}' 
gained,  and  the  prosperous  condition  the  lit- 
tle kingdom  has  now  entered  upon.  The  ed- 
ucated and  enlightened  raya/i  follows  closely 
in  the  footsteps  of  his  liberated  kinsmen,  and 
bids  fair  some  day  to  catch  them  up.  Until 
recent  times  the  real  advance  in  the  Greek 
character  seems  to  have  escaped  the  notice  of 
European  critics,  and  in  obedience  to  ancient 
prejudice  it  is  still  the  fashion  to  cry  down 
the  future  queen  of  South-East  Europe.  A 
charitable  Prussian  diplomatist,  writing  with 
more  zeal  than  knowledge,  gave  the  follow- 
ing flattering  portrait  of  the  Greeks  of  Con- 
stantinople at  the  end  of  the  last  century  ; 


"  Le  quartier  est  la  demeure  de  ce  qu'on  ap- 
pelle  la  noblesse  grecque,  qui  vivent  tous  aux 
depenses  des  princes  de  Moldavie  et  de  Vala- 
chie.  C'est  une  universite  de  toutes  les  see- 
leratesses,  et  il  n'existe  pas  encore  de  langue 
assez  riche  pour  donner  des  noms  a  toutes 
celles  qui  s'y  commettent.  Le  flls  y  apprend 
de  bonne  heme  a  assassiner  adroitement  son 
pere  pour  quel  que' argent  qu'il  ne  saurait  etre 
poursuivi.  Les  intrigues,  les  cabales,  l'hy- 
pocrisie,  la  trahison,  la  perfidie,  surtout  l'art 
d'extorquer  de  1 'argent  de  toutes  mains,  y 
sont  enseignes  methodiquement  !" 

An  English  author  of  more  recent  date,  but 
neither  more  enlightened  nor  animated  with 
a  greater  sense  of  "justice  or  impartiality,  de- 
nies their  right  to  a  national  history  or  their 
possession  of  an  ancestry,  furnishing  them 
instead  with  one  out  of  his  fertile  imagina- 
tion. According  to  him  several  millions  of 
Greeks  are  nameless,  homeless  upstarts,  who 
have  invariably  made  their  fortunes  by  fol- 
lowing the  trade  of  bakeds,  or  chandlers,  and, 
with  the  enormous  and  illegal  profits  of  their 
business,  send  their  sons  to  Athens  to  be  ed- 
ucated and  receive  a  European  varnish,  then 
to  return  to  Turkey  full  of  pretension  and 
bad  morals,  to  sow  discord  and  create  mis- 
chief among  their  less  enlightened  brethren. 
Such  absurd  statements  carry  their  own  re- 
futation ;  but  they  mislead  people  who  are 
already  prejudiced  and  ready  to  believe  any- 
thing bad  of  the  Greeks.  The  general  cur- 
rency such  erroneous  assertions  receive,  even 
i  in  England,  the  country  of  Byron  and  the 
i  seamen  of  Navarino,  struck  me  in  a  remark 
lately  made  by  an  intelligent  English  boy  of 
twelve,  who,  happening  to  hear  the  Greeks 
mentioned  at  the  luncheon-table,  asked  his 
mother  if  all  the  Greeks  were  not  cut- 
throats ? 

These  fallacies  are  gradually  being  cleared 
away.  As  a  nation  the  Greeks  possess  un- 
deniable virtues  and  talents,  which,  properly 
encouraged  and  guided,  have  in  them  the 
making  of  a  strong  progressive  people — such 
as  one  day  the  Greeks  will  assuredly  be. 
Their  faults  are  as  distinct  and  prominent  as 
their  virtues.  In  the  careful  and  impartial 
examination  a  long  residence  has  enabled  me 
to  make  of  the  character  of  this  people,  I 
discovered  a  good  deal  of  vanity,  bravado, 
and  overweening  conceit.  Tbey  are  vain  of 
their  ability,  and  still  more  vain  of  the  merits 
and  capacity  of  free  Hellas,  of  which  they 
are  so  enamoured  as  to  consider  this  little 
kingdom,  in  its  way,  on  a  level  with  the 
Great  Powers.  The  spirit  of  bravado  is  often 
shown  in  animated  disputes  and  contro- 
versies, for  which  they  have  a  great  par- 
tiality. They  are  subtle,  extremely  sensi- 
tive, fond  of  gain,  but  never  miserly.  Their 
enthusiastic  nature,  given  free  scope,  will 
lead  them  into  the  doing  of  golden  deeds  ; 
and,  in  the  same  way,  bad  influence  will 
make  of  some  the  most  finished  rogues  in 
creation.  No  Greek  thief  of  Constantinople 
will  be  beaten  in  daring  or  in  the  art  of  car- 
rying out  a  coup  de  mam.  No  assassin  will 
more  recklessly  plunge  his  knife  into  the 
heart  of  an  enemy,  no  seducer  be  more 
enticing,  no  brigand  more  dashing  and 
bold.  And  yet  in  the  worst  of  these  there 
is  some  redeeming  quality  ;  a  noble  ac- 
tion polluted  by  many  bad  ones  ;  crimes 
often  followed  by  remorse  and  a  return  to  a 
steady  and  honest  life.  Gratitude  for  a  good 
service  is  always  met  with  amor.g  the  Greeks, 
as  among  the  Albanians.  An  example  of 
this  may  be  seen  in  an  adventure  that  more 
than  twenty  years  ago  happened  to  an  Eng- 
lishman in  the  Government  employ,  who  was 
travelling  in  a  province  infested  by  brigands. 
Armed  and  accompanied  by  a  good  escort, 
Mr.  F.  had  set  out  during  the  night  for  the 

town  of  L ,  and  following  the  impulse  of 

an  adventurous  spirit,  he  strayed  away  from 
his  companions  in  a  dense  forest.  The  light 
of  a  full  moon  made  the  path  quite  distinct, 
and  he  had  proceeded  some  distance,  when  his 
bridle  was  suddenly  seized  by  some  fierce- 


looking  fellows,  who  appeared  by  his  side  as 
if  by  magic.  Mr.  F.  's  surprise  was  as  great 
as  the  action  was  menacing  ;  but  he  instantly 
seized  his  revolver,  and  thought  on  the  pru- 
dence of  using  it,  when  the  "capitan,"  a 
regular  lerometws*  sprang  forward,  and  a 
struggle  ensued  for  its  possession,  in  which 
the  weapon  was  broken.  The  moment  was 
critical,  the  danger  imminent,  for  self -defence 
was  out  of  the  question  with  a  broken  re- 
volver. In  this  emergency  with  the  pres- 
ence of  mind  which  characterizes  him,  Mr. 
F.  thought  of  another  means  of  protection, 
and  removing  the  white  cover  of  his  official 
cap,  pointed  out  the  crown  on  it,  and  de- 
clared himself  a  servant  of  the  British  Gov- 
ernment. This  had  the  desired  effect,  for 
the  chief  released  his  hold  of  the  bridle,  and 
retired  a  short  distance  with  his  companions 
to  hold  a  consultation,  the  result  of  which 
was  his  again  stepping  forward,  and  inquir- 
ing if  the  gentleman  was  the  son  of  the  con- 
sul of  the  town  of  T ,  and  being  answered 

in  the  affirmative  the  "  capitan,"  with  much 
feeling,  declared  he  was  free  to  pursue  his 
way,  for  his  father  had  rendered  many  good 
and  noble  services  to  the  Greek  families  of 
Thessaly  andEpirus,  and  had  saved  the  lives 
and  property  of  many  others.  "Besides," 
added  he,  "  we  love  and  respect  the  English. 
But  a  few  miles  hence  you  will  fall  in  with  the 
camp  of  old  A.  Pasha,  who,  with  800  troops 
and  two  guns,  intends  to  surround  yonder 
mountain,  where  he  expects  to  entrap  and 
chase  us  like  wild  beasts.  The  price  of  your 
freedom  is  your  word  of  honor  not  to  reveal  to 
him  your  meeting  with  us  until  to-morrow  ; 
when  that  is'given,  your  escort  will  be  allowed 
to  pass  unmolested. "  Mr.  F.  then  continued 
his  journey,  and  a  couple  of  hours  brought 
him  to  the  camp  of  his  friend  the  brigand- 
chasing  Pasha,  who  gave  him  an  excellent 
supper,  and  entertained  him  with  the  plan 
of  his  next  day's  assault  on  the  brigand  band, 
to  which  he  had  patiently  to  listen,  bound  as 
he  was  by  his  word  not  to  reveal  what  he 
knew  of  their  whereabouts  until  the  next  day. 
As  the  game  the  Pasha  expected  to  entrap 
escaped  him  on  the  morrow,  the  revelation 
naturally  annoyed  him  ;  but  he  was  too  well 
aware  of  the  value  an  Englishman  placed 
upon  his  pledged  word,  even  to  a  brigand, 
to  find  fault  with  the  reticence  of  his  friend 
on  that  occasion. 

The  Greek  aristocracy  has  almos/  disap- 
peared, and  the  nation  seems  now  eminently 
democratic,  though  fond  of  giving  titles  to 
persons  of  position,  such  as  "  Your  Wor- 
ship," "Your  Honor,"  "Your  Highness." 
etc.,  and  "Your  Holiness"  to  the  clergy. 
Such  terms  are  smoothly  introduced  in  epis- 
tolary addresses  or  used  in  conversation,  so 
long  as  this  is  earned  on  with  calmness  and 
reflection  ;  but  directly  discussion  becomes 
animated,  and  the  speaker,  whatever  his 
condition,  excited,  all  such  high-flown  phrases 
are  discarded  and  exchanged  for  that  more 
natural  to  the  Creek  fraternal  feeling,  the 
word  "Adelphe"  (brother), '  which  never 
fails  to  grate  upon  the  ear  of  Englishmen  in 
the  East. 

It  certainly  had  this  effect  upon  one  of  our 
old  consuls  who  had  rather  a  hasty  temper 
and  was  a  strict  observer  of  etiquette.  On 
one  occasion  he  had  to  listen  to  an  excited 
Greek  who  had  a  dispute  with  another,  and 
heard  the  title  of  Adelphe  addressed  to  him 
by  the  complainant,  who,  to  make  matters 
worse,  was  by  no  means  such  a  respectable 
person  as  could  be  wished.  The  indignant 
consul  exclaimed  in  Greek,  "  Brother  !  I  am 
no  brother  of  yours  !"  and  was  proceeding 
to  render  his  assurance  more  effectual  by  a 
vigorous  and  unexpected  movement  of  his 
foot,  when  he  lost  his  balance  and  was 
stretched  on  the  floor.  This  unforeseen  as- 
pect of  affairs  appeared  so  comical  to  him 
that  he  indulged  in  a  hearty  peal  of  laughter, 


*  Leromenos  signifies  soiled,  which  among  the 
Greeks  is  the  highest  title  of  a  hrigaud  bravo,  evinced 
in  the  filth  of  hie  long-worn  arid  mmashed/uiianaUa. 


10 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY". 


in  which  the  Greek,  though  politely  asking 
after  his  injuries,  joined — in  his  sleeve. 

The  charges  raised  most  frequently  against 
the  Greeks  are  their  want  of  honesty  in  their 
dealings  with  strangers,  and  their  general 
unscrupulousness  in  business  transactions. 
These  accusations,  in  great  part  well  founded, 
are  due  to  the  unnatural  position  in  which 
the  rayah  is  placed.  Ever)'  Greek  who  is 
truly  a  Greek  in  heart  (and  I  have  known 
few  who  were  not  so)  must  detest  and  dis- 
like his  riders,  and  direct  his  energies  to  pro- 
moting, openly  or  secretly,  the  interest  of  his 
nation.  In  order  to  do  this,  however,  he 
must  work  in  the  dark,  and  strive  to  under- 
mine the  interests  of  his  masters  ;  conse- 
quently the  mask  of  hypoerisv  has  to  be 
worn  by  all  in  the  same  way.  To  cheat  the 
Turks  in  small  matters  when  he  can,  in  re- 
venge foi  grosser  injuries  he  is  liable  to  re- 
ceive from  them,  becomes  one  of  his  objects. 
His  is  not  the  onty  subject  race  that  evinces 
a  laxity  of  principle  and  want  of  morality  in 
the  transaction  of  business.  He  is  sharp  in 
its  despatch,  perhaps  sharper  than  some 
others,  but  no  worse  than  they  in  the  manner 
in  which  he  carries  on  his  trade. 

I  have  often  heard  this  subject  discussed 
in  all  its  bearings,  and  the  statements  of  Eu- 
ropean as  well  as  native  merchants  appeared 
to  agree  on  the  main  point — that  with  the 
corrupt  administration,  and  the  perpetual 
necessity  of  having  recourse  to  bribery  in 
order  to  facilitate  the  course  of  business, 
honest  and  straightforward  dealing  was  out 
of  the  question.  "  We  must,"  said  a  weal- 
thy French  merchant,  "  do  in  Turkey  as  the 
Turks  do,  or  else  seek  a  fortune  elsewhere.  " 
The  following  incident  out  of  innumerable 
others  will  give  an  idea  of  how  enterprise  is 
encouraged  and  business  carried  on  in  this 
country. 

Some  Jews  in  the  town  of  L had  es- 
tablished a  soap  factory,  producing  a  bad  ar- 
ticle and  selling  it  at  high  prices.  Subse- 
quently some  Cretan  Greeks  set  up  a  rival 
establishment  in  the  same  town.  The  Cre- 
tans enjoyed  a  great  repute  in  Turkey  for  this 
branch  of  industry,  and  offered  their  soaps 
to  the  public  at  a  lower  price  than  the  Jews, 
who  were  thrown  into  the  shade ;  these 
therefore  hud  to  invent  some  plan  to  ruin 
their  rivals.  Both  factories  imported  their 
own  oil  from  the  Greek  islands,  and  paid  the 
duties  ,in  kind  or  in  cash.  The  Greeks 
adopted  the  former  method,  and  the  Jews, 
aware  of  the  fact,  presented  themselves  at 
the  custom-house,  estimated  the  oil  the 
Greeks  received  at  double  its  value,  and  tran- 
sported a  portion  of  it  to  their  premises,  thus 
obliging  the  Greeks  to  pay  double  duty — a 
serious  matter,  which,  if  not  remedied, 
would  ruin  their  business.  They  decided 
upon  offering  the  Jews  privately  half  of  the 
extra  duty  they  were  called  upon  by  them  to 
pay  to  the  revenue.  But  on  a  second  cargo 
of  oil  being  imported  they  abstained  from 
paying  that  sum  to  the  Jews,  who  thereupon 
made  them  pay  double  duty  a  second  time, 
which  so  exasperated  the  Greeks  that  they 
resolved  to  have  their  revenge.  So,  sending  a 
fresh  order  for  oil,  they  instructed  their 
agent  to  have  two  of  the  barrels  filled  with 
water,  and  marked  with  some  sign.  This 
cargo  on  arriving  was  left  by  the  Greeks  in 
the  custom-house  until  the  Friday  afternoon 
when  they  went  to  clear  it.  The  Jews,  made 
aware  of  this  fact  by  their  spies,  also  pre- 
sented themselves,  estimated  the  oil,  as  for- 
merly, at  double  its  value,  and  offered  to  pur- 
chase the  two  barrels  left  as  payment  of 
duty.  The  Greeks  prolonged  the  affair  until 
there  was  only  just  time  for  the  Jews  to  take 
away  their  purchase,  but  not  to  inspect  it 
without  breaking  the  Sabbath.  On  the  fol- 
lowing evening  the  Jews  discovered  the  trick 
that  had  been  played  upon  them,  and  exposed 
it  to  the  custom-house  officials,  demanding  re- 
dress. The  Greeks,  summoned  to  appear  and 
answer  the  charge,  denied  that  the  swindle 
had  been  practised  by  them,  and  exposed  the 


dishonest  dealings  of  the  Jews  towards  them, 
saying  that  it  must  have  been  they  who  ab- 
stracted the  oil  and  replaced  it  with  wafer, 
with  the  object  of  cheating  the  Customs. 
The  authorities,  unwilling  to  take  further 
trouble  about  the  matter,  sent  away  both 
parties,  and  would  have  nothing  more  to  do 
with  the  case.  The  Jews  in  the  mean  time 
were  inconsolable  ;  and  when  the  Cretans 
thought  they  had  been  sufficiently  punished, 
they  confessed  the  trick,  and  offered  to  make 
amends  by  refunding  the  money  they  had 
paid  for  the  casks  if  they  would  go  with 
them  to  the  Rabbi  and  take  an  oath  to  make 
no  more  attempts  to  injure  their  business  by 
dishonest  means. 

The  principal  Greek  merchants  trade  un- 
der foreign  protection,  as  it  affords  them 
greater  security  and  freedom  from  the  in- 
trigues of  the  ill  disposed. 

To  sum  up.  The  subject  Greek  of  Turkey 
has  his  vices  :  he  is  over-ambitious,  con- 
ceited, too  diplomatic  and  wily ;  and,  in 
common  with  most  merchants,  European  or 
Eastern,  in  Turkey,  he  does  his  best  to  cheat 
the  Turks  —  and  occasionally  extends  the 
practice  further,  not  without  excellent  pre- 
cedent. But  these  are  the  vices  of  a  race 
long  kept  in  servitude  and  now  awaking  to 
the  sense  of  a  great  ancestry  :  the  servitude 
has  produced  the  servile  fault  of  double-deal- 
ing and  dishonesty  ;  and  the  pride  of  a  noble 
past  has  engendered  the  conceit  of  the  pres- 
ent. Such  vices  are  but  passing  deformities  : 
they  are  the  sharp  angles  and  bony  length  of 
the  girl-form  that  will  in  time  be  perfected  in 
beauty.  These  faults  will  disappear  with  the 
spread  of  education  and  the  restoring  of  free- 
dom long  withheld.  The  quick  intellect  and 
tine  mettle  of  the  Greek,  like  his  lithe  body,  de- 
scended from  a  nation  of  heroes,  are  destined 
to  great  things.  The  name  alone  of  Hellenes 
carries  with  it  the  prescriptive  right  of  speak- 
ing and  doing  nobly  ;  and  the  modern  Hel- 
lenes will  not  disown  their  birthright. 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE   ALBANIANS. 

Albania  little  known  to  Travellers — Character  of 
the  Country— Isolation  and  Neglect— Products— The 
Land-holders — Ali  Bey's  Revolution— Albanian  Towns 
— The  Albanian's  House  his  Castle  in  a  Literal  Sense 
—Blood  Feuds — Villages— Unapproachable  Position 
— The  Defence  of  Souli  — Joanmna — Beautiful  Site — 
AH  Pasha's  Improvements— Greek  Enterprise— The 
Albanians— Separate  Tribes— The  Ghegs— The  Tosks 
—Character  of  the  Latter— Superiority  of  the  Ghegs— 
Respect  for  Women — An  Adventure  with  a  Brigand 
Chief— Gheg  Gratitude— A  Point  of  Honor  with  an 
Albanian  Servant— Religion  among  the  Albanians- 
Education  anion"  the  Tosks— Warlike  Character  of 
the  Albanians— Use  of  the  Gun— The  Vendetta— Wo- 
men to  the  Rescue— Albanian  Women  in  General- 
Female  Adornment— Emigration— Mutual  Assistance 
Abroad  — The  Albanian  Character — Recklessness  — 
Love  of  Display— Improvidence — Pride— Hatred  of 
the  Turks  reciprocated  to  the  Full. 

The  Albanians,  like  most  of  the  races  of 
minor  importance  inhabiting  European  Tur- 
key, are  little  known  to  the  civilized  world 
Albania,  with  its  impassable  mountains, 
broken  by  deep  and  precipitous  ravines,  the 
footways  of  torrents,  has  been  visited  only  by 
those  few  travellers  who  have  had  enough 
courage  and  adventurous  spirit  to  penetrate 
into  its  fastnesses.  This  country,  occupying 
the  place  of  the  ancient  Illyria  and  Epirus, 
was  in  the  middle  ages  called  Arvanasi,  and 
later  on  Arnaoutlik  by  the  Turks  and 
Arvanitia  by  the  Greeks  ;  but  in  the  native 
tongue  it  is  called  Skiperi,  or  ' '  land  of  rocks. ' ' 
It  is  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Albania, 
and  forms  two  vilayets,  that  of  Scutari  (com- 
prising the  provinces  of  Berat,  El  Bassan, 
Ochrida,  Upper  and  Lower  Dibra,  Tirana, 
Candia,  Duratzo,  Cruia,  Tessi,  Scutari,  Dul- 
cigno,  and  Podgoritza,  and  that  of  Joannina, 
in  Epirus  (comprising  Joannina,  Konitza, 
Paleopogoyani,  Argyrokastro,  Delvino,  Par- 
akalanio,  Paramythia,  Margariti,  Leapourie 
or  Arbar,  and  Avlona). 

Owing  to  the  mountainous  character  of  the 
country,  and  the  turbulent  and  warlike  dis- 


position of  its  inhabitants,  it  5s  still  unex 
plored  in  many  parts,  poorly  cultivated  in 
others,  and  every  where  much  neglected  in  its 
rich  and  fertile  valleys.  Unfortunately  agri- 
culture, still  in  a  very  primitive  and  neglected 
condition  throughout  Turkey,  is  especially  so 
in  Albania.  This  neglect,  however  prejudi- 
cial to  the  well-being  of  the  inhabitants, 
rather  heightens  the  wild  beauty  of  the 
scenery,  the  changing  grandeur  and  loveli- 
ness of  which  alternately  awes  and  delights 
the  traveller. 

Shut  out  from  the  civilized  world  by  the 
want  of  roads  and  means  of  communication, 
all  the  natural  advantages  the  country  pos- 
sesses have  remained  stationary,  and  its 
beauty  and  fertility  turned  to  little  account 
by  the  wild  and  semi-savage  population  that 
inhabits  it. 

The  principal  productions  of  Blyrian  Al 
bania  arc  horses,  sheep,  and  oxen,  reared  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Mousakia  ;  grain  is  exten- 
sively grown  at  Tirana  ;  and  rye  and  Indian 
corn  are  grown  in  El  Bassan  ;  and  in  some 
parts  of  Dibra  a  coarse  kind  of  silk  is  man- 
ufactured into  home-spun  tissues,  and  used 
for  the  elaborate  embroidery  of  the  pictu- 
resque national  costume.  A  stout  felt  used 
for  the  capa,  or  cloak,  is  made  of  wool.  A 
kind  of  red  leather,  and  other  articles  of 
minor  importance,  are  also  manufactured  in 
these  parts. 

Epirus,  or  Lower  Albania,  owing  to  its 
more  favorable  situation  and  the  mildness  of 
its  climate,  is  by  far  the  more  fertile  and  bet- 
ter cultivated  of  the  two  vilayets.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  above-mentioned  products,  it 
grows  rice,  cotton,  olives,  tobacco,  oranges, 
citrons,  grapes,  and  cochineal.  Though 
agriculture  is  carried  on  in  the  same  primi- 
tive manner,  richer  harvests  are  produced, 
and,  as  shown  by  the  yearly  returns,  there  is 
a  steady  increase  of  the  export  trade. 

Albania  abounds  in  minerals,  but  the  mines 
are  little  known,  still  less  worked.  Hot 
springs,  possessing  valuable  medicinal  qual- 
ities, are  also  to  be  found  in  many  places,  but 
the  country  people  arc  totally  ignorant  of 
their  properties,  and  take  the  waters  indis- 
criminately for  any  ailments  they  may  hap- 
pen to  have,  and,  in  obedience  to  the  old 
superstitious  reverence  for  the  spirits  of  the 
fountains,  even  drink  from  several  different 
sources  in  the  hope  of  gaining  favor  with 
their  respective  nymphs. 

The  large  landowners,  both  in  Upper  anil 
Lower  Albania,  are  Mohammedans,  often 
perverted  from  Christianity.  They  still  ex- 
ercise a  despotic  and  unlimited  control  over 
the  peasants,  and  show  the  convert's  pro- 
verbial spirit  of  intolerance  towards  their 
brethren  who  hold  fast  the  faith  of  their  fa- 
thers. At  the  beginning  of  this  century,  and 
before  Ali  Pasha  had  made  himself  the  com- 
plete master  of  Joannina,  much  of  the  landed 
property  in  Lower  Albania  was  held  by  Chris- 
tians, and  many  semi-independent  villages, 
entirely  inhabited  by  Christians,  were  to  be 
found  scattered  all  over  the  country.  Their 
number  was  sadly  diminished  during  the 
revolutionary  convulsion  that  upset  the  coun- 
try. The  property  of  many  Christian  land- 
holders experienced  the  same  fate.  Their 
estates  were  snatched  from  their  lawful  own- 
ers by  the  wily,  avaricious,  and  hypocritical 
despot,  who,  employing  by  turns  the  three 
methods  of  force,  fraud,  and  nominal  com- 
pensation, drove  away  the  owners  and  ap- 
propriated the  lands  to  himself.  After  his 
death  all  these  lands  passed  to  the  crown  as 
Imlak  property,  and  were  never  restored  to 
their  former  possessors. 

The  landed  property  in  both  Upper  and 
Lower  Albania  still  retains  much  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  species  of  feudal  system 
which  once  prevailed  throughout  Turkey  ; 
but  instead  of  the  rule  of  a  few  powerful 
Beys  or  one  single  despot,  a  legion  of  petty 
tyrants  hold  the  people  in  bondage.  Yet 
there  may  be  found  among  the  landholders 
a  few,  poorer  than  the  rest,  who  are  respected 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


11 


for  their  integrity  and  for  their  paternal  treat- 
ment of  the  peasants  on  their  estates. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  towns  and  villages 
in  Upper  Albania  differs  very  little  from  that 
of  other  towns  and  villages  in  Turkey.  The 
same  want  of  finish  and  clumsiness  of  work- 
manship prevail  in  all  the  Albanian  houses, 
which  are  usually  detached  from  one  another 
and  stand  in  court-yards  surrounded  by  high 
walls.  Some  of  these  dwellings  are  complete 
fortresses  ;  but  this  is  not  on  account  of  the 
terrible  never-ending  blood-feuds  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation,  which  make 
each  man's  life  (out-of-doors)  the  least  secure 
of  his  possessions.  In  times  of  peace  his 
house  can  be  left  with  open  gates,  and  is  held 
sacred  and  respected  even  by  the  vilest  and 
most  desperate  characters  ;  for  it  is  a  point 
of  honor  with  an  Albanian  never  to  incur  the 
disgrace  of  shedding  a  man's  blood  injiis 
own  house  ;  but  the  moment  he  crosses  the 
threshold,  he  is  at  the  mercy  of  his  foe. 

An  Albanian  chieftain,  who  had  a  deadly 
quarrel  with  a  neighbor  and  consequently 
was  in  terror  of  Ills  life,  was  compelled  to 
stay  within  doors  for  twelve  long  years,  know- 
ing the  risk  he  ran  if  the  threshold  were 
crossed.  Finally,  craving  a  little  liberty,  he 
obtained  an  armistice  and  was  allowed  perfect 
freedom  for  a  short  space  of  time. 

In  times  of  open  contention  the  houses  are 
fortified  and  guarded  by  armed  bands,  who 
conceal  themselves  in  strongholds  attached  to 
some  of  the  buildings,  watch  for  the  approach 
of  the  enemy,  and  open  fire  upon  them  from 
tne  loopholes  with  which  the  walls  are 
pierced. 

The  furniture  of  their  dwelling-houses  is 
scanty,  poor,  and  comfortless.  Some  val- 
uable carpets,  a  gorgeously  embroidered  sofa 
in  the  reception-room,  and  a  few  indispen- 
sable articles,  are  all  they  possess.  The  streets 
are  narrow  and  badly  paved,  and  look  dismal 
and  deserted.  The  bazars  and  shops  are  in- 
ferior to  those  of  most  of  the  towns  of  Tur- 
key. They  contain  no  variety  of  objects  for 
use  or  ornament  beyond  those  absolutely 
necessary  for  domestic  purposes. 

The  villages  are  far  more  curious  and  in- 
teresting to  the  traveller  than  the  towns. 
Some  of  these  in  Upper  Albania,  in  moun- 
tainous districts,  are  at  a  great  distance  from 
each  other,  and  are  perched  up  on  the  sum- 
mits of  high  rocks  that  tower  above  each 
other  in  successive  ranges,  in  some  places 
forming  a  natural  and  impassable  rampart  to 
the  village,  in  others  trodden  into  steep  paths 
where  the  goat  doubtless  delights  to  climb, 
but  where  man  experiences  any  but  agreeable 
sensaiions. 

Lower  Albania,  better  known  to  travellers, 
is  less  rugged  and  wild  in  appearance.  But 
here  and  there  we  meat  with  mountainous 
districts — such  as  the  far-famed  canton  of 
Souli,  which  in  the  time  of  AH  Pasha  num 
bered  eleven  villages,  some  scattered  on  the 
peaks  of  mountains,  others  studding  their 
skirts  ;  while  the  terrible  Acheron  gloomily 
wound  its  way  through  *,Ue  deep  gorges  that 
helped  to  secure  the  river  its  victims. 

Souli,  defended  by  its  13,000  inhabitants, 
withstood  the  siege  of  the  dreaded  pasha's 
armies,  held  them  in  check  for  fifteen  3'ears, 
and  acquired  undying  fame  in  the  history  of 
the  war  of  Greek  independence  for  heroism 
hardly  surpassed  by  the  most  valiant  feats 
of  the  ancients,  and  with  which  nothing 
in  modern  warfare  can  compare.  Every 
Souliot,  man,  woman,  and  child,  was  ready 
to  perish  in  the  defence.  The  women  and 
children  who  had  fought  so  long  by  the  side 
of  their  husbands  and  fathers,  at  the  last 
extremity,  preferring  death  to  captivity  and 
dishonor,  threw  themselves  from  the  rocks 
into  the  dark  stream  below,  while  the  few 
that  survived  the  final  destruction  cut  their 
way  through  their  enemies,  and  were  scattered 
over  Greece  to  tell  the  sad  tale  of  the  fall  of 
Souli. 

The  plateau  of  Joannina  is  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  wooded  mountains,  and  is  from 


1,300  to  1,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
On  this  table-land  is  a  lake  about  fourteen 
miles  in  length  and  six  in  breadth,  on  the  rich 
borders  of  which  rises  the  town  of  Joannina, 
like  a  fairy  palace  in  an  enchanted  land. 
This  town,  which  contains  25,000  inhabi- 
tants, became  the  favorite  abode  of  Ali  Pasha, 
who  transformed  and  embellished  it  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  and  founded  schools  and 
libraries. 

The  edifices  erected  by  him  were  partly 
destroyed  by  his  followers,  when  his  power 
was  supposed  to  have  reached  its  end, 
together  with  the  gilded  kiosks  and  superb 
palaces  built  for  his  own  enjoyment.  All 
that  Joannina  can  boast  of  at  the  present  day 
is  the  exceeding  beauty  of  its  situation,  and 
the  activity  that  Greek  enterprise  has  given 
to  its  commerce,  and  the  excellent  schools 
and  syllogae  that  have  been  established  and 
are  said  to  be  doing  wonders  in  improving 
and  educating  the  new  generation  of  Epirus. 

The  Albanians  are  divided  into  several  dis- 
tinct races,  each  presenting  marked  features 
of  difference  from  the  other  and  occupying 
separate  districts.  Those  of  Upper  Albania 
are  called  Ghegs,  and  inhabit  that  portion  of 
the  country  called  Ghegueria,  which  extends 
from  the  frontiers  of  Bosnia  and  Montenegro 
to  Berat. 

These  men  are  broad-chested,  tall,  and  ro- 
bust, have  regular  features,  and  a  proud, 
manly,  independent  mien.  Their  personal 
attractions  are  not  a  little  enhanced  by  their 
rich  and  picturesque  national  costume — a  pair 
of  cloth  gaiters  ;  an  embroidered  jacket  with 
open  sleeves  ;  a  double  breasted  waistcoat  ; 
the  Greek  fustanella  (white  calico  kilt),  sur- 
mounted by  a  cloth  skirt  opened  in  front ;  a 
kemer,  or  leather  belt,  decorated  with  silver 
ornaments,  and  holding  a  pistol,  yataghan, 
and  other  arms  of  fine  workmanship.  The 
whole  costume  is  richly  worked  with  gold 
thread.  On  the  head  is  worn  a  fez,  wider  at 
the  top  than  round  the  head,  and  ornamented 
with  a  long  tassel. 

The  Tosks  inhabiting  Lower  Albania,  in 
the  sandjaks  of  Avlona  and  Berat,  and  the 
Tchames  and  Liaps  of  the  sandjaks  of  Del- 
vina  and  Joannina,  designate  their  country 
Tchamouria  and  Liapouria.  These  latter  are 
supposed  to  be  direct  descendants  of  ancient 
Hellenes,  as  they  speak  the  Greek  language 
with  greater  purity  than  the  rest ;  and  cer- 
tainly some  of  their  characteristic  features 
bear  a  great  resemblance  to  those  of  the  an- 
cient Greeks.  All  the  Albanians  of  Epirus 
use  the  Greek  language,  and  are  more  con- 
versant with  it  than  with  Turkish,  which  in 
some  places  is  not  spoken  at  all. 

The  Tosks  are  tall  and  well  built,  and  ex- 
tremely agile  in  all  their  movements  ;  their 
features  are  regular  and  intelligent,  but  like 
most  Albanians  the}'  have  a  fidrce,  cruel,  and 
sometimes  cunning  cast  of  countenance,  and 
a  swagger  in  their  gait,  by  which  they  can 
easily  be  distinguished  from  the  other  races, 
even  when  divested  of  their  national  costume. 
They  are  of  a  warlike  and  ferocious  disposi- 
tion, yet  they  have  noble  qualities  which 
atone  in  some  measure  for  their  ferocity  and 
produce  a  very  mixed  impression  of  the  na- 
tional character.  They  are  a  constant  sourco 
of  dread  to  strangers,  but  objects  of  implicit 
confidence  and  trust  to  those  who  have  gained 
their  friendship  and  earned  their  gratitude. 

In  bravery,  trustworthiness,  and  honor,  the 
Ghegs  bear  the  palm.  No  Gheg  will  scruple 
to  "  take  to  the  road  "  if  he  is  short  of  money 
and  has  nothing  better  to  do.  If  any  man  he 
may  meet  on  the  high-road  disregards  his 
command,  "  Desdour"  (stand  still),  he  thinks 
nothing  of  cutting  his  throat  or  settling  him 
with  a  pistol-shot ;  but  if  a  Gheg  has  once 
tasted  3rour  bread  and  salt  or  owes  you  a  debt 
of  gratitude  or  is  employed  in  your  service, 
all  his  terrible  qualities  vanish  and  he  becomes 
the  most  devoted,  attached,  and  faithful  of 
friends  and  servants.  Generally  speaking, 
the  Ghegs  are  abstemious  and  not  much  ad- 
dicted to  the  vices  of  Asiatics.    Women  are 


'  respected  by  them  and  seldom  exposed  to  the 
j  attacks  of  brigands  or  libertines. 

These  characteristics  are  so  general  and  so 
deeply  rooted  in  the  character  of  the  Gheg 
that  consuls,  merchants,  and  others,  who 
need  brave  and  faithful  retainers,  employ 
them  in  preference  to  men  of  any  other  race. 

I  was  once  making  a  journey  across  coun- 
try to  a  watering-place  in  Albania  and  set 
out  for  this  deserted  and  isolated  spot  with  a 
capital  escort  ;  accompanied  moreover  by  a 
wealthy  Christian  dignitary  of  the  town  in 
which  I  had  been  staying.  During  a  short 
halt  we  made  in  a  mountain  gorge  to  refresh 
ourselves  with  luncheon,  near  a  ruined  and 
deserted  bekleme,  or  guard-house,  suddenly  a 
fine  but  savage-looking  Albanian  appeared  be- 
fore us.  He  was  followed  by  several  other 
sturdy  fellows,  all  armed  to  the  teeth.  My 
friend  turned  pale,  and  the  escort,  taking  to 
their  guns,  stood  on  the  defensive. 

But  the  feeling  of  fear  soon  vanished  from 
my  people,  as  the  Albanians  approached  them, 
and  instead  cf  uttering  the  dreaded  "  Des 
dour!"  gracefully  put  their  hands  on  their 
breasts  and  repeated  the  much  more  agreeable 
welcome  word  "  Merhaba !"  The  band 
chatted  with  my  men,  whilst  their  chieftain 
approached  my  travelling  companion,  and 
entered  into  conversation  with  him,  eveiy 
now  and  then  giving  a  glance  at  me  with  an 
expression  of  wonder  on  his  face.  At  last 
he  inquired  who  I  was,  and  declared  he  was 
astonished  at  the  independent  spirit  of  the 
I/ifflis  lady,  who,  in  spite  of  fatigue  and  dan- 
ger, had  ventured  so  far. 

He  willingly  accepted  our  offer  of  lun- 
cheon ;  first  dipping  a  piece  of  bread  in  salt 
and  eating  it.  My  horse  was  then  brought 
up  ;  the  chief  stood  by,  and  gallantly  held 
the  stirrup  while  I  mounted.  I  thanked 
him,  and  we  rode  off  at  a  gallop.  After  we 
had  gone  some  distance  on  our  road,  my 
friend  heaved  a  deep  sigh  of  relief,  and  said 
to  me,  "  Do  you  know  who  has  been  lunch- 
ing with  us,  holding  your  stirrup,  and  assist- 
ing you  to  mount  t  It  is  the  fiercest  and 
most  terrible  of  Albanian  brigand  chiefs  in 
this  neighborhood  !  For  the  last  seven  years 
he  and  his  band  have  been  the  terror  of  this 
kaza,  in  consequence  of  their  robberies  and 
murders,  respecting  none  but  those  of  your 
sex, — guided,  I  presume^  in  this  by  the  super- 
stition, or  let  us  say  point  of  honor,  some  Al- 
banians strictly  observe,  that  it  is  cowardly 
and  unlucky  to  attack  women." 

An  adventure  that  lately  happened  to  a 
friend  of  mine  will  show  the  manner  in 
which  Ghegs  remember  a  good  service  ren- 
dered them.  Some  years  ago,  a  few  Albani- 
ans, personally  known  to  the  gentleman  in 
question,  who  owns  a  large  estate  in  Mace- 
donia, heard  that  three  of  their  fellow- 
countrymen  had  got  into  trouble.  Through 
the  influence  Mr.  A.  possessed  with  the  local 
authorities,  their  release  was  obtained.  The 
incident  had  almost  passed  out  of  his  memory 
when  it  was  unexpectedly  recalled  at  a  criti- 
cal moment.  Some  Albanian  beys,  who  had 
a  spite  against  Mr.  A.,  in  consequence  of  a 
disputed  portion  of  land,  resolved  to  take 
advantage  of  the  present  state  of  anarchy  and 
disorder  in  the  country  to  have  him  or  his 
son  assassinated  the  next  time  either  of  them 
should  visit  the  estate.  The  villanous  scheme 
was  intrusted  to  a  band  of  Albanian  brigands 
that  were  known  to  be  lurking  in  the  vicinity 
of  Mr.  A. 's  estate.  At  harvest-time,  as  he 
was  about  to  start  for  the  country,  he  re- 
ceived a  crumpled  dirty  little  epistle,  written  in 
the  Greek-Albanian  dialect,  to  this  effect : — 

"  Much  esteemed  Effendi,  and  ■venerated  bene- 
factor : 
"  Some  years  ago  your  most  humble  serv- 
ant and  his  companions  were  in  difficulties. 
You  saved  them  from  prison  and  perhaps 
from  the  halter.  The  service  has  never  been 
forgotten,  and  the  debt  we  owe  to  you  will 
be  shortly  redeemed  by  my  informing  you 
that  the  robber  band  of  Albanians  in  the 


12 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


vicinity  of  your  cliiftlik  have  received  in- 
structions and  have  accepted  the  task  of 
shooting  you  down  the  first  time  you  come 
in  this  direction.  I  and  my  valiant  men  will 
be  on  the  look-out  to  prevent  the  event  if 
possible,  but  we  warn  you  to  be  on  your 
guard,  for  your  life  is  in  danger. 

"  Kissing  your  hand  respectfully, 
"  I  sign  myself, 

"  A  MEMBER  OP  THE  VERY  BAND  I" 

Another  friend  related  to  me  a  strange  ad- 
venture he  had  with  an  Albanian  ex-brigand, 
who  for  some  time  had  been  in  his  service. 
This  gentleman  was  a  millionaire  of  the  town 
of  P.,  who  in  his  younger  days  often  col- 
lected the  tithes  of  his  whole  district,  and 
consequently  had  occasion  to  travel  far  into 
the  interior  and  bring  back  with  him  large 
sums  of  money.  During  these  tours  the 
faithful  Albanian  never  failed  to  accompany 
his  master.  On  one  occasion,  however, 
when  they  had  penetrated  into  the  wildest 
part  of  his  jurisdiction,  his  servant  walked 
into  the  room  where  he  was  seated,  and  after 
makinsc  his  temenla,  or  salute,  said,  "  Chor- 
badji,  I  shall  leave  you  ;  therefore  I  have 
come  to  say  to  you  Allah  'semarladu  (good- 
by)." 

"Why,"  said  the  astonished  gentleman, 
"  what  is  to  become  of  me  in  this  outlandish 
place  without  you  ?" 

"  Oh,"  was  the  response,  "  I  leave  you  be- 
cause I  have  consented  to  attack  and  rob  you, 
and  as  such  an  act  would  be  cowardly  and 
treacherous  while  I  eat  your  bread  and  salt, 
I  give  you  notice  that  I  mean  to  do  it  on  the 
highway  as  you  return  home,  so  take  what 
precautions  you  like,  that  it  may  be  fair  play 
between  us."  This  said,  he  made  a  second 
temenla  and  disappeared. 

He  was  as  good  as  his  word  ;  going  back 
to  his  former  profession,  he  soon  found  out 
and  joined  a  band  of  brigands,  and  at  their 
head  waylaid  and  attacked  his  former  master, 
who,  well  aware  of  the  character  of  the  man 
he  had  to  deal  with  and  the  dangers  that 
awaited  him,  had  taken  measures  accordingly 
and  provided  himself  with  an  escort  strong 
enough  to  overpower  the  brigands. 

The  Albanians  before  the  Turkish  conquest 
professed  the  Christian  religion,  which,  how- 
ever, does  not  appear  to  have  been  very  deepty 
rooted  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  ;  from  time 
immemorial  they  were  more  famous  for  their 
warlike  propensities  and  adventurous  exploits 
than  for  their  good  principles. 

After  the  conquest,  Islam,  finding  a  favor- 
able soil  in  which  to  plant  itself,  made  con- 
siderable progress  in  some  districts,  where 
the  inhabitants  willingly  adopted  it  in  order 
to  escape  persecution  and  oppression.  This 
progress,  however,  was  not  very  extensive 
until  the  time  of  the  famous  Iskander  Beg,  or 
Scanderbeg,  who  played  so  prominent  a  role 
in  the  history  of  his  country,  and  whose  de- 
sertion of  the  Mohammedan  and  adoption  of 
the  Christian  religion  so  exasperated  Sultan 
Murad  that  he  forthwith  ordered  that  most 
of  the  Christian  churches  should  be  con- 
verted into  mosques,  and  that  all  Epirots 
should  be  circumcised  under  pain  of  death. 

The  second  impulse  Mohammedanism  re- 
ceived in  Albania  was  under  the  rule  of  AH 
Pasha,  when  whole  villages  were  converted 
to  Islam,  though  their  inhabitants  to  this  day 
bear  Christian  names,  and  in  some  cases  the 
mother  or  wife  is  allowed  to  retain  the  faith 
of  her  fathers  and  wiU  keep  her  fasts  and 
feasts  and  attend  her  Christian  church  while 
her  husband  joins  the  Mussulman  congrega- 
tion. In  those  parts  of  Epirus,  however, 
where  the  Greek  population  was  in  the  ma- 
jority and  its  ignorant  though  devout  clergy 
had  influence  with  the  people,  they  held  fast 
to  their  religion  as  they  did  to  their  language. 

The  Mirdites  were  equally  steadfast  to  their 
faith  and  purpose,  and  have  remained  among 
the  most  faithful  and  devout  followers  of  the 
Pope.  The  number  of  Roman  Catholic  Mir- 
dites  is  reckoned  at  about  140,000  souls,  scat- 


tered in  the  different  districts  of  Albania. 
They  have  several  bishoprics,  and  their 
bishops  and  priests  are  sent  from  Rome  or 
Scutari.  The  Mirdites  make  flue  soldiers, 
and  have  often  been  engaged  by  the  Porte 
as  contingent  troops,  or  employed  in  active 
service.  They  take  readily  to  commerce 
and  agriculture,  and  on  the  whole  may  be 
considered  the  most  advanced  and  civil- 
ized of  the  Illyrian  Albanians.  They  might, 
however,  progress  much  more  rapidly  if 
their  pastors,  to  whose  guidance  they  sub- 
mit themselves  implicitly,  would  follow 
the  example  of  the  Greeks  in  Epirus, 
and  introduce  a  more  liberal  course  of  in- 
struction ;  for  the  education  is  at  present  very 
limited  beyond  the  religious  branches.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  excessive  religious  teach- 
ing among  ignorant  people,  though  a  power- 
ful preservative  of  the  faith,  tends  inevitably 
to  render  them  narrow-minded,  bigoted,  and 
incapable  of  self-development. 

The  Mohammedanism  of  the  Albanians  is 
not  very  deeply  rooted,  nor  does  it  bear  the 
stamp  of  the  true  faith.  Followers  of  the 
Prophet  in  Lower  Albania  especially  may  be 
heard  to  swear  alternately  by  the  PanagMa 
(blessed  Virgin)  and  the  Prophet,  without  ap- 
pearing disposed  to  follow  too  closely  the 
doctrines  of  either  the  Bible  or  the  Koran. 
It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  the  Moslems  of 
Albania  contrast  very  unfavorably  with  the 
Christians. 

The  Tosks  are  held  in  ill-repute  on  account 
of  the  difficulty  they  seem  to  experience  in  de- 
fining the  difference  between  treachery  and 
good  faith.  They  are  clever  and  have  made 
more  progress  than  the  Ghegs  in  the  civili- 
zation that  Greece  is  endeavoring  to  infuse 
among  her  neighbors.  Some  of  their  districts 
are  worthy  of  mention,  on  account  of  the  taste 
for  learning  displayed  by  their  inhabitants, 
the  earnestness  with  which  they  receive  in- 
struction, and  the  good  results  that  have 
already  crowned  their  praiseworthy  efforts. 

Zagora,  for  instance,  famous  as  having 
afforded  shelter  to  many  Greeks  after  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople,  is  renowned  for 
the  intelligence  and  general  enlightenment  of 
its  inhabitants.  The  sterile  and  unproductive 
soil  induces  the  men  to  rely  less  upon  the 
fruits  of  their  manual  toil  than  upon  their 
mental  labor,  consequently  most  of  them 
migrate  to  other  countries,  seeking  their 
fortune.  Some  take  to  commerce,  others  to 
professions,  and  after  realizing  a  competence 
they  return  to  their  native  land  and  impart  the 
more  advanced  ideas  their  experience  has 
given  them  to  their  compatriots  who  have 
not  enjoyed  the  same  privileges. 

The  women  of  Zagora  are  much  esteemed 
for  their  virtues  and  enlightenment.  Such 
facts  as  these  make  a  refreshing  contrast  to 
the  dark  cloud  of  ignorance  which,  in  spite 
of  the  pure  sky  of  Albania  and  the  beauty  of 
the  scenery,  still  hangs  thickly  on  the  land, 
and  casts  a  shadow  where  Nature  meant  all 
to  be  sunshine. 

The  warlike  instincts  of  the  Albanian  find 
more  scope  for  action  in  the  Mohammedan 
than  in  the  Christian  religion.  They  gladly 
accept  an  invitation  to  fight  the  battles  of  the 
Porte  or  those  of  any  nation  that  will  pay 
them.  This  help  must,  however,  be  given  in 
the  way  most  agreeable  to  themselves,  i.e.  as 
paid  contingents  under  the  command  of  their 
own  chieftains,  to  whom  they  show  implicit 
obedience  and  fidelity.  Under  the  beloved 
banner  of  their  Bey,  legions  will  collect, 
equally  ready  to  do  the  irregular  work  of  the 
Bashi-bazouks  or  to  be  placed  in  the  regular 
army. 

But,  as  a  rule,  the  Albanian  objects  to  or- 
dinary conscription,  and  avoids  it,  if  pos- 
sible, by  a  direct  refusal  to  be  enrolled,  or 
else  makes  his  escape.  When  on  the  road 
to  the  seat  of  war,  a  regiment  of  Albanians 
is  a  terrible  scourge  to  the  country  it  passes 
through  ;  like  locusts,  they  leave  nothing  but 
naked  stalks  and  barren  ground  behind  them. 

The    principal    merits    of    the    Albanian 


soldier  are  his  rapidity  of  motion,  steady  aim, 
carelessness  of  life,  and  hardy  endurance  in 
privation.  An  Albanian's  gun  is  his  com- 
panion and  his  means  of  subsistence  in  peace 
or  war.  To  it  he  looks  for  his  daily  bread 
more  than  to  any  other  source,  and  he  uses  it 
with  a  skill  not  easily  matched. 

When  travelling  in  Upper  Albania  we 
halted  one  day  in  a  field  which  appeared  quite 
uncultivated  and  waste,  and  were  making  ar- 
rangements for  our  mid-day  meal,  when  an 
Albanian  bekchi  (forest- keeper)  appeared  on 
the  scene  and  ordered  us  to  quit  the  spot,  as 
it  was  cultivated  ground.  Our  escort  re- 
monstrated with  the  fellow,  saying  that  it 
was  the  only  convenient  place  near  tor  a 
halt,  and  that  now  we  had  alighted  we  should 
remain  where  we  were  until  we  had  finished 
our  meal. 

The  Albanian,  entirely  regardless  of  the 
number  of  the  escort  and  the  authority  of 
government  servants,  became  more  persistent 
in  his  commands,  and  the  guards  lost  pa- 
tience and  threatened  to  arrest  him  and  take 
him  before  the  Mudir  of  the  town  that  lay  a 
little  further  on.  "  The  Mudir,"  scornfully 
repeated  the  mountaineer,  "  and  who  told 
you  that  I  recognize  the  authority  of  the 
Mudir?"  Then  taking  his  long  gun  from 
his  shoulder,  he  held  it  up  and  said,  "  This  is 
my  authority,  and  no  other  can  influence  me 
or  acquire  any  power  over  me  !" 

The  social  relations  of  the  Albanians  are 
limited  to  two  ideas,  Vendetta  and  bessa 
(peace). 

In  cases  of  personal  insult  or  offence  the 
vendetta  is  settled  on  the  spot.  Both  parties 
stand  up,  the  insulted  full  of  indignation  and 
thirsting  for  revenge,  the  offender  repentant, 
perhaps,  or  persistent.  The  aggrieved  per- 
son, even  in  the  former  case,  seldom  yields 
to  persuasion  or  softens  into  forgiveness  ;  he 
draws  a  brace  of  pistols  and  presents  them  to 
his  antagonist  to  make  his  choice.  The  little 
fingers  of  their  left  hands  are  linked  together 
and  they  fire  simultaneously.  A  survivor  is 
rare  in  such  cases,  and  the  feud  thus  caused 
between  the  relatives  of  both  parties  is  perpet- 
uated from  generation  to  generation. 

It  takes  very  little  to  provoke  these  terrible 
blood-feuds,  and  one  or  two  instances  that 
have  come  under  my  direct  notice  will  suffice 
to  give  an  idea  of  their  nature  and  the  vio- 
lence with  which  real  or  fancied  insult  is 
avenged. 

One  happened  while  I  was  at  Uskup.  The 
cause  was  nothing  more  weighty  than  a  con- 
tention between  two  Albanian  sportsmen, 
who  were  disputing  the  possession  of  a  hare 
that  each  maintained  he  had  shot.  The  dis- 
pute became  so  violent  that  a  duel  was  re- 
sorted to  as  the  only  way  to  settle  it.  It  came 
off  on  the  common  in  the  presence  of  the 
combatants'  relatives  and  friends,  who  joined 
in  the  quarrel ;  and  a  general  battle  ensued, 
in  which  the  women  fought  side  by  side  with 
their  husbands  and  brothers.  A  girl  of  sev 
en  teen,  a  sister  of  one  of  the  two  sportsmen, 
fought  with  the  courage  of  a  heroine,  and 
with  a  success  worthy  of  a  better  cause. 
Fourteen  victims  fell  on  that  day.  The  Gov- 
ernor of  Uskup,  who  related  the  story  to  me, 
said  that  he  despaired  of  ever  seeing  these 
savage  people  yield  to  the  influence  of  their 
more  refined  neighbors,  or  become  entirely 
submissive  to  the  Sultan's  government  But 
great  changes  have  taken  place  since  then 
with  respect  to  their  submission  to  the  Porte. 
The  Government  is  now  able  almost  safely 
to  send  governors  and  sub-governors  into  Al- 
bania to  collect  taxes  from  such  as  choose 
to  pay  them,  and  even  draw  a  certain  num- 
ber of  recruits  from  the  most  turbulent  and 
independent  districts. 

Another  of  these  lamentable  blood  feuds 
happened  in  Upper  Dibra,  and  was  witnessed 
by  one  of  my  friends  then  living  there. 

It  originated  in  two  lads  at  the  village 
fountain  throwing  stones  and  breaking  the 
pitcher  of  au  Albanian  girl  who  had  come  to 
fetch  water.     This  was  considered  au  insult 


THE  PEOPLE  OP  TURKEY. 


13 


to  her  maidenhood  and  was  at  once  made  the 
cause  of  a  serious  quarrel  by  the  friends  of 
the  two  parties.  A  fight  ensued  in  which  no 
less  than  sixty  people  lost  their  lives. 
Women's  honor  is  held  in  such  high  esteem 
in  these  wild  regions  that  so  trivial  an  accident 
suffices  to  cause  a  terrible  destruction  of  life. 

Albanian  women  are  generally  armed,  not 
for  the  purpose  of  self-defence — no  Albanian 
would  attack  a  woman  in  his  own  country — 
but  rather  that  they  may  be  able  to  join  in 
the  brawls  of  their  male  relatives,  and  fight 
by  their  side.  The  respect  entertained  for 
women  accounts  for  a  strange  custom  preva- 
lent among  Albanians — that  of  offering  to 
strangers  who  wish  to  traverse  their  country 
the  escort  of  a  woman.  Thus  accompanied, 
the  traveller  may  proceed  with  safety  into 
the  most  isolated  regions  without  any  chance 
of  harm  coming  to  him. 

The  Albanian  women  are  lively  and  of  an 
independent  spirit,  but  utterly  unlettered. 
Very  few  of  the  Mohammedans  in  Lower 
Albania  possess  any  knowledge  of  reading  or 
writing.  They  are,  however,  proud  and 
dignified,  strict  observers  of  the  rules  of  na- 
tional etiquette  ;  and  they  attach  great  im- 
portance to  the  antiquity  of  their  families, 
and  regulate  their  marriages  by  the  degrees 
of  rank  and  lineage. 

The  natural  beauty  of  the  Albanian  girl 
soon  disappears  after  she  has  entered  upon 
the  married  state.  She  then  begins  to  dye 
her  hair,  to  which  nature  has  often  given  a 
golden  hue,  jet  black  ;  she  besmears  her  face 
with  a  pernicious  white  composition,  black- 
ens her  teeth,  and  reddens  her  hands  with 
henna  ;  the  general  effect  of  the  process  is  to 
make  her  ugly  during  youth,  and  absolutely 
hideous  in  old  age.  The  paint  they  use  is 
not  only  most  destructive  to  the  complexion, 
but  also  to  the  teeth,  which  decay  rapidly 
from  its  use.  I  believe  they  blacken  their 
teeth  artificially  to  hide  its  effects.  On  my 
inquiring  the  reason  of  this  strange  custom 
of  some  Albanian  ladies,  they  laughed  at  my 
disapproval  of  it,  and  told  me  that  in  their 
opinion  it  was  only  the  fangs  of  dogs  that 
should  be  white. 

Both  Christian  and  Mohammedan  Alba- 
nians, dissatisfied  with  the  poverty  of  their 
country  and  their  incapability  of  developing 
its  natural  resources  or  profiting  by  them, 
often  leave  it  and  migrate  to  other  parts  of 
Turkey  in  search  of  employment.  Large  num- 
bers seek  military  service  in  Turkey,  Egypt, 
and  other  countries,  or  situations  as  guards, 
herdsmen,  etc.  Some  of  the  Christians  study 
and  become  doctors,  lawyers,  or  schoolmas- 
ters. The  lower  classes  are  masons,  carters, 
porters,  servants,  dairymen,  butchers,  etc.  ; 
their  wives  and  children  seldom  accompany 
them,  but  remain  at  home  to  look  after  their 
belongings,  and  content  themselves  with  an 
occasional  visit  from  the  assiduous  bread- 
winner. 

All  Albanians  call  themselves  Arkardash 
(brothers),  and  when  away  from  their  homes 
will  assist  and  maintain  the  Kapoussis,  or 
new-comers,  until  they  obtain  employment 
through  the  instrumentality  of  their  compa- 
triots already  established  in  the  town.  Thus 
assistance  is  given  in  small  towns  to  the  Ka- 
poussis.io  defray  the  expenses  of  his  mainte- 
nance and  lodging  in  the  Khan.  When  he 
obtains  a  place,  he  repays  the  money  in 
small  instalments  until  the  debt  is  acquitted. 

The  Albanian,  generally  a  gay,  reckless 
fellow,  is  always  short  of  money :  many 
among  the  better  conditioned  carry  their  for- 
tune on  their  person  in  the  shape  of  rich  em- 
broideries on  their  handsome  costumes  and 
valuable  arms.  In  their  belt  is  contained  all 
the  money  they  possess.  When  the  fortune- 
seeker  has  to  wait  a  long  time  for  the  fickle 
goddess  to  smile  upon  him,  and  the  forbear- 
ance or  generosity  of  his  friends  is  exhaust- 
ed, and  the  kemer  becomes  empty,  he  sells 
his  fine  arms,  and  the  splendid  suit  of  clothes 
follows  to  the  same  fate.  But  the  Albanian, 
though  externally  transformed,  will  be  by  no 


means  crushed  in  spirit  or  at  all  less  conceit- 
ed in  manner,  even  when  a  tattered  rag  has 
replaced  the  gaudy  fez,  and  i\  coarse  aba  his 
fustaneUa  and  embroidered  jacket.  With 
shoes  trodden  down  at  heel  lie  patiently 
lounges  about  under  the  name  of  Ghiplak 
until  the  expected  turn  of  fortune  arrives. 
Should  it  be  very  long  in  coming,  our  Alba- 
nian turns  the  tables  upon  the  goddess, 
shoulders  his  gun,  and  takes  to  the  high-road. 

The  bessa,  or  truce,  is  the  time  Albanians 
allow  themselves  at  intervals  to  suspend  their 
blood-feuds  ;  it  is  arranged  by  mutual  con- 
sent between  the  contending  parties,  and  is 
of  fixed  duration  and  strictly  observed  :  the 
bitterest  enemies  meet  and  converse  in  per- 
fect harmony  and  confidence. 

The  character  of  the  Albanians  is  simply 
the  mixed  unhewn  character  of  a  barbarous 
people  ;  they  have  the  rough  vices  but  also 
the  unthiaking  virtues  of  semi-savage  races. 
If  they  are  not  civilized  enough  not  to  be 
cruel,  at  least  civilization  has  not  yet  taught 
them  its  general  lesson  that  honor  and  chiv- 
alry are  unpractical  relics  of  Middle-Age 
superstition,  quite  unworthy  of  the  business- 
like man  of  to-day,  whose  eyes  are  steadily 
fixed  on  the  main  chance.  The  Albanian, 
too,  can  plunder,  but  he  does  it  gun  in  hand 
and  openly  on  the  highway  ;  not  behind  a 
desk  or  on  'Change.  His  faults  are  the 
faults  of  an  untrained  violent  nature,  they 
are  never  mean  ;  his  virtues  are  those  of  for- 
gotten days,  and  are  not  intended  to  pay. 
He  is  more  often  abused  than  praised,  but  it 
is  mostly  for  want  of  knowledge  ;  for  his 
faults  are  on  the  surface,  whilst  his  sterling 
good  qualities  are  seen  only  by  those  who 
know  him  well,  and  know  how  to  treat  him. 

The  ties  that  bind  this  nation  to  its  rulers 
have  never  been  those  of  strict  submission, 
or  of  sympathy.  The  Turkish  government 
cannot  easily  forget  the  troubles  and  loss  of 
life  the  conquest  of  Albania  occasioned,  nor 
can  it  feel  satisfied  with  the  manner  in  which 
imperial  decrees  are  received  by  the  more  tur- 
bulent portion  of  the  inhabitants  with  regard 
to  the  enrolment  of  troops  and  the  payment 
of  taxes  ;  nor  pass  over  the  insolence  and 
even  danger  to  which  its  officials  are  often 
exposed. 

The  Mohammedan  Albanians  on  their  side 
deeply  resent  the  loss  of  their  liberty,  and 
the  forfeiture  of  their  privileges,  and  recipro- 
cate to  the  full  the  ill  feeling  and  abusive  lan- 
guage of  the  Turks.  The  Turk  calls  the  Al- 
banian Haidout  Arnaout !  or  Tettak  !  * 

The  Albanian  regards  the  Turk  as  a  doubt- 
ful friend  and  a  corrupt  and  impotent  mas- 
ter ;  and  if  this  antipathy  exists  between  the 
Turks  and  the  Albanian  Moslem,  it  is  scarce- 
ly necessary  to  say  that  it  is  felt  far  more 
strongly  between  the  Turks  and  the  Albanian 
Christians  of  Epirus  and  the  Mirdites,  who, 
feeling  doubly  injured  by  the  oppressive  rule 
to  which  they  are  forced  to  submit,  and  the 
loss  of  their  freedom,  ill-brook  the  authority 
of  the  Porte.  The  Mirdite  turns  his  looks 
and  aspirations  towards  the  Slavs,  while  the 
Albanian  hopes  finally  to  share  the  liberty  of 
the  Greek. 

The  Porte,  under  these  circumstances,  had 
a  difficult  mission  to  fulfil  in  controlling  this 
mixed  multitude,  and  was  not  unjustified  in 
looking  upon  it  with  distrust  and  suspicion. 
It  now  seems  probable,  however,  that  it  may 
be  relieved  of  the  weight  of  this  responsi- 
bility. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  TURKS. 
Turkish  Peasants— Decrease  in  Numbers— Taxation 
and  Recruiting— Relations  .vith  the  Christians— Ap- 
pearance—Amusements —House  and  Family— Towns- 
people— Guilds — Moslems  and  Christians — The  Turk 
as  an  Artisan — Objection  to  Innovations — Life  in  the 
Town — The  Military  Class — Government  Officials — 
Pashas— Grand  Vizirs — Receptions — A  Turkish  Lady's 
Life — The  Princes— The  Sultan— Mahmoud— His  Re- 
forms—  Abdul-Medjid  —  Abdul- Aziz  —  Character  and 
Fate— Murad — Abdul-Hamid — Slavery  in  Turkey. 

The  Turkish  peasants  inhabiting  the  rural 


*  "Brigand  Albanian  I"  "  Bath-boy  f" 


districts  of  Bulgaria,  Macedonia,  Epirus,  and 
Thessaly,  although  the  best,  most  industri- 
ous, and  useful  of  the  Sultan's  Mohammedan 
subjects,  everywhere  evince  signs  of  poverty, 
decrease  in  numbers,  and  general  deteriora- 
tion. This  fact  is  evident  even  to  the  mere 
traveller,  from  the  wretchedness  and  pover- 
ty-stricken appearance  of  Turkish  villages, 
with  their  houses  mostly  tumbling  to  pieces. 
The  inhabitants,  unable  to  resist  the  drain 
upon  them  in  time  of  war  when  the  youngest 
and  most  vigorous  men  are  taken  away  for 
military  service,  often  abandon  their  dwell- 
ings and  retire  to  more  populous  villages  or 
towns  :  the  property  thus  abandoned  goes  to 
ruin,  and  the  fields  in  the  same  manner  be- 
come waste.  This  evil,  which  has  increased 
since  the  more  regular  enforcement  of  the 
conscription,  may  be  traced  to  three  princi- 
pal sources  :  the  first  is  the  unequal  man- 
ner in  which  the  conscription  laws  are  carried 
out  upon  this  submissive  portion  of  the  peo- 
ple ;  the  second  is  the  want  of  laborers,  the 
inevitable  consequence  of  the  recruiting  sys- 
tem, whereby  the  best  hands  are  drawn  away 
annually  at  the  busiest  and  most  profitable 
time  of  the  year,  to  the  great  and  sometimes 
irreparable  injury  of  industry  ;  the  third  is  the 
irregular  and  often  unjust  manner  in  which 
the  taxes  are  levied.  Under  these  unencour- 
aging  circumstances  the  disabled  old  men, 
the  wild  boys,  and  the  women  (who  are  never 
trained  to  work  and  are  consequently  unfit 
for  it),  are  left  behind  to  continue  the  labor 
of  the  conscripts,  and  struggle  on  as  well  as 
indolent  habits  and  natural  incapacity  for 
hard  work  wiil  allow  them.  The  large  vil- 
lages will  soon  share  the  fate  of  the  small 
ones  and  be  engulfed  in  the  same  ruin,  unless 
radical  changes  are  introduced  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Turkish  peasants.  Their  cond  on 
requires  careful  and  continued  attention  at 
the  hands  of  a  good  and  equitable  adminis- 
tration. 

The  Turkish  peasant  is  a  good,  quiet,  and 
submissive  subject,  who  refuses  neither  to 
furnish  his  Sultan  with  troops  nor  to  pay  his 
taxes,  so  far  as  in  him  lies  ;  but  he  is  poor, 
ignorant,  helpless,  and  improvident  to  an  al- 
most incredible  degree.  At  the  time  of  re- 
cruiting he  will  complain  bitterly  of  his  hard 
lot,  but  go  all  the  same  to  serve  his  time  ;  he 
groans  under  the  heavy  load  of  taxation,  gets 
imprisoned,  and  is  not  released  until  he  man- 
ages to  pay  his  dues. 

He  is  generally  discontented  with  his  gov- 
ernment, of  which  he  openly  complains,  and 
still  more  with  its  agents,  with  whom  he  is 
brought  into  closer  contact ;  but  still  the  idea 
of  rebelling  against  either,  giving  any  signs 
of  disaffection,  or  attempting  to  resist  the 
law,  never  gets  any  hold  upon  him.  His 
relations  with  his  Christian  neighbors  vary 
greatly  with  the  locality  and  the  personal 
character  of  both.  In  some  places  Christian 
and  Turkish  peasants,  in  times  of  peace,  live 
in  tolerable  harmony,  in  others  a  continual 
warfare  of  complaints  on  one  side  and  acts  of 
oppression  on  the  other  is  kept  up.  The  only 
means  of  securing  peace  to  both  is  to  sepa 
rate  the  two  parties,  and  compel  each  to  rest 
solely  upon  its  own  exertions  and  resources, 
and  to  prove  its  worth  in  the  school  of  neces- 
sity. An  English  gentleman  owning  a  large 
estate  in  Macedonia  used  to  assert  that  until 
the  Christian  peasant  adopts  a  diet  of  beer 
and  beef,  nothing  will  be  made  of  him  ;  in 
the  same  manner  I  think  that  until  the  Turk 
is  cured  of  his  bad  habit  of  employing  by 
hook  or  by  crook  Petcho  and  Yancho  to  do 
his  work  for  him,  he  will  never  be  able  to  do 
it  himself. 

The  Turkish  peasant  is  well  built  and 
strong,  and  possesses  extraordinary  power  of 
endurance.  His  mode  of  living  is  simple,  his 
habits  sober  ;  unlike  the  Christians  of  his 
class  he  has  no  dance,  no  village  feast,  and 
no  music  but  a  kind  of  drum  or  tambourine, 
to  vary  the  monotony  of  his  life.  His  cup 
of  coffee  and  his  chibouk  contain  for  him  all 
the  sweets  of  existence.    The  coffee  is  taken 


14 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


before  the  labors  of  the  day  are  begun,  and 
again  in  the  evening  at  the  cafme.  His  work 
is  often  interrupted  in  order  to  enjoy  the  chi- 
bouk, which  he  smokes  crouched  under  a 
tree  or  wall.  His  house  is  clean  but  badly 
built,  cold  in  winter  and  hot  in  summer,  pos- 
sessing little  in  the  way  of  furniture  but  bed- 
ding, mats,  rugs,  and  kitchen  utensils.  He 
is  worse  clad  than  the  Christian  peasant,  and 
his  wife  and  children  still  worse  ;  yet  the 
women  are  content  with  their  lot,  and  in 
their  ignorance  and  helplessness  do  not  try, 
like  the  Christian  women,  to  better  their  con- 
dition by  their  individual  exertions  ;  they  are 
irreproachable  and  honest  in  their  conduct, 
and  capable  of  enduring  great  trials.  Some 
are  very  pretty  ;  they  keep  much  at  home, 
the  young  girls  seldom  gather  together  for 
fun  and  enjoyment  except  at  a  wedding  or 
circumcision  ceremony,  when  they  sing  and 
play  together,  while  the  matrons  gossip  over 
their  private  affairs  and  those  of  their  neigh- 
bors! The  girls  are  married  young  to  peas- 
ants of  their  own  or  some  neighboring  vil- 
lage. Polygamy  is  rare  among  Turkish  pea- 
sants, and  they  do  not  often  indulge  in  the 
luxury  of  divorce. 

On  the  whole  the  Turkish  peasant,  though 
not  a  model  of  virtue,  is  a  good  sort  of  man, 
and  would  be  much  better  if  he  had  not  the 
habit  in  times  of  national  trouble  to  take 
upon  him  the  name  of  Bashi-Bazouk,  and  to 
transform  himself  into  a  ruffian. 

Turks,  generally  speaking,  prefer  town  to 
country  life  ;  for  in  towns  they  enjoy  more 
frequent  opportunities  of  indulging  in  that 
dolcefar  niente  which  has  become  an  integral 
part  of  the  Turkish  character  and  has  entire- 
ly routed  his  original  nomadic  disposition. 

The  tradespeople  of  the  towns  are  ranged 
into  esnafs,  or  guilds,  and  form  separate  cor- 
porations, some  of  which  include  Christians 
when  they  happen  to  be  engaged  in  the  same 
pursuits.  Thus  there  are  the  esnafs  of  bar- 
bers, linen-drapers,  greengrocers,  grooms, 
etc.  These  bodies,  strange  to  say,  in  the 
midst  of  general  disunion  and  disorganiza- 
tion, are  governed  by  fixed  laws  and  regula- 
tions faithfully  observed  by  Christians  aud 
Turks  alike,  and  the  rival  worshippers,  bound 
only  by  the  obligation  of  good  faith  and 
honor  towards  each  other,  pull  together  much 
better  and  show  a  greater  regard  for  justice 
and  impartiality  than  is  evinced  by  any  other 
portion  of  the  community.  Every  corpora- 
tion elects  one  or  two  chiefs,  who  regulate 
all  disputes  and  settle  any  difficulties  that 
may  arise  among  the  members.  These  Ous- 
tas,  or  chiefs,  are  master-workmen  in  their 
different  trades.  The  apprentices  are  called 
Chiraks,  and  obtain  promotion,  according  to 
their  ability,  after  a  certain  number  of  years. 
When  considered  sufficiently  advanced  in 
their  business,  the  master,  with  the  consent 
and  approval  of  the  corporation,  admits  them 
into  the  fraternity,  and  gives  them  the  choice 
of  entering  into  partnership  with  him  or  be- 
ginning business  on  their  own  account. 

The  grooms  yearly  elect  a  chief  in  each 
town,  called  Sets  Bashi,  through  whom,  for  a 
small  fee,  grooms  may  be  obtained  with 
greater  security  than  otherwise  for  their  good 
behavior  and  capability.  The  meetings,  or 
lonjas,  of  this  esnaf  are  held  pretty  frequent- 
ly in  coffee-houses,  where  the  affairs  of  the 
corporation  are  regulated,  and  the  meeting 
generally  terminates  in  an  orgy  ;  after  which 
the  grooms  retire  to  their  stables,  much  the 
worse  for  the  wine  and  raki  they  have  drunk. 

Once  a  year  each  of  the  associations  gives 
a  picnic,  either  on  the  feast  of  the  patron  saint 
or  at  the  promotion  of  an  apprentice.  On 
such  occasions  a  certain  sum  is  collected  from 
the  members,  or  taken  from  the  reserve  fund 
which  some  of  the  esnafs  possess,  for  the 
purchase  of  all  kinds  of  provisions  needed 
for  a  substantial  and  sometimes  even  sump- 
tuous meal,  to  which  not  only  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  guild  are  invited,  irrespective  of 
creed  and  nationality,  but  also  all  strangers 
who  may  happen  to  pass  the  place  where  the 


feast  is  held.  The  amusements  include  music 
and  dancing  for  the  Christians,  and  a  variety 
of  other  entertainments,  always  harmless  and 
quite  within  the  bounds  of  decorum,  and 
joined  in  with  the  spirit  of  joviality  that 
characterizes  these  gatherings  ;  disputes  are 
of  rare  occurrence,  and  the  greatest  harmony 
is  displayed  throughout  the  day  between 
Christian  and  Mussulman.  When  the  interests 
of  the  Mohammedans  are  closely  connected 
with  those  of  the  Christians,  both  willingly 
forego  something  of  their  usual  intolerance 
in  order  to  further  the  cause  of  business.  It 
is  strange  and  regretable  that  this  spirit  of 
association  among  the  lower  orders  should 
receive  sj  little  encouragement  from  the  Gov- 
ernment and  the  higher  classes. 

Though  the  Mohammedans  in  certain 
localities  and  under  such  circumstances  as 
those  I  have  mentioned  are  just  in  their 
dealings  with  the  Christians,  and  maintain  a 
friendly  feeling  towards  them  ;  in  others,  es- 
pecially in  inland  towns,  the  growing  pros- 
perity of  the  Christians  excites  a  bitter  feel- 
ing among  their  Turkish  neighbors,  who 
often  offer  open  hostility  and  intiict  irrepara- 
ble injury  on  their  business  and  property. 
Many  incidents  of  this  nature  have  come  un- 
der my  notice,  and  lead  me  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  non-progressiveness  of  the  Turks 
and  the  rapid  decline  of  their  empire  is  partly 
due  to  the  unfortunate  and  insurmountable 
incongeniality  existing  between  the  Turks 
and  Christians.  The  Turks,  as  the  domi- 
nant race,  assumed  total  ascendancy  over  the 
Christians,  got  into  the  habit  of  using  them 
as  tools  who  acted,  worked,  and  thought  for 
them  in  an  irresponsible  fashion,  and  thus 
lost  the  power  of  doing  for  themselves,  to- 
gether with  the  sense  of  seeing  the  necessity 
of  dealing  with  justice,  generosity,  aud  im- 
partiality, which  alone  could  have  guaranteed 
enterprise  or  secured  confidence  and  sym- 
pathy between  the  two  classes.  Unfortu- 
nately for  the  Turks  this  has  brought  about  a 
state  of  permanent  antipathy  between  the 
two  that  can  never  be  corrected  ;  nor  can  any 
reconciliation  be  arrived  at  unless  these 
classes  become  entirely  independent  of  one 
another.  Any  arrangement,  short  of  this,  as 
any  person  well  informed  as  to  the  actual  re- 
lations of  Turks  aud  Christians,  be  they 
Greeks  or  Bulgarians,  will  admit,  must  be  of 
short  duration,  and  before  long  tliere  could 
not  fail  to  come  a  recurrence  of  outbreaks, 
revolutions,  and  the  usual  atrocities  that  ac- 
company disorder  among  these  races. 

The  lurks,  generally  speaking,  are  not  ac- 
tive or  intelligent  in  business,  and  do  not 
venture  much  into  speculation  or  commercial 
transactions  of  any  great  importance.  For 
example,  one  never  hears  of  their  undertak- 
ing banking,  or  forming  companies  for  the 
purpose  of  working  mines,  making  railways, 
or  any  other  enterprise  involving  risk  and  re- 
quiring intelligence,  activity,  system,  and 
honesty  to  insure  success.  The  first  reason 
for  this  strange  neglect  in  a  people  who  pos- 
sess one  of  the  finest  and  most  productive 
countries  in  the  world  is  a  naturally  stagnant 
and  lethargic  disposition ;  another  is  the 
want  of  the  support  of  the  Government, 
which  has  never  shown  itself  earnestly  de- 
sirous of  aiding  private  enterprise  or  guaran- 
teeing its  success  by  affording  disinterested 
protection.  Until  very  recent  times  no  pains 
have  been  taken  cither  by  individuals  or  by 
the  Government  to  introduce  those  innova- 
tions and  improvements  which  the  times  de- 
mand. The  consequence  is  that  the  Turkish 
tradespeople  gradually  find  the  number  of 
their  customers  decrease,  while  the  Greeks, 
Franks,  and  others  successfully  supply  the 
public  with  the  new  articles,  or  the  old  ones 
improved  and  better  fashioned.  To  give  an 
instance  of  this  I  will  repeat  an  incident  re- 
lated to  me  by  a  Turkish  bey  of  "La  Jeune 
Turquie"  as  a  lamentable  proof  of  the  non- 
progressiveness  of  the  masses.  "  When  at 
Stamboul,"saidhe,  "  I  had  during  some  time 
to  pass  by  the  shop  of  &  Turkish  basket- 


maker  who,  with  two  of  his  sons,  one  grown 
up  and  the  other  a  boy,  might  be  seen  work- 
ing at  the  wicker  hampers  and  common 
baskets  which  have  been  used  in  the  country 
from  time  immemorial,  but  are  now  less  used 
by  reason  of  the  superiority  of  those  brought 
from  Europe  or  made  in  the  school  for  me- 
chanical arts  in  Stamboul,  an  institution  not 
much  appreciated  by  the  artisans  who  enjoy 
the  liberty  of  going  themselves  or  sending 
their  children  to  learn  the  innovations  in 
their  different  branches  of  industry.  The 
basket-maker  and  his  sons  were  evidently  a 
steady-going^  set,  representing  the  honest 
Turks  of  olden  time,  but  seemed  to  be  strug- 
gling for  a  livelihood.  Feeling  an  interest  in 
them,  I  one  day  stopped  and  asked  the  old 
man  what  he  realized  per  diem  by  the  sale  of 
his  baskets.  He  heaved  a  deep  sigh,  glanced 
round  his  dismal  shop,  ornamented  only 
with  dust-covered  baskets,  and  said,  '  Very 
little,  from  three  to  six  piastres  ((id.  to  1».) ; 
for  my  business,  once  a  thriving  one,  is  now 
cast  into  the  shade,  and  few  customers  come 
to  buy  the  old  Turkish  baskets. '  '  Why  then 
do  you  not  give  it  up  and  take  to  something 
else  ? ' 

"  '  No,  it  did  very  well  for  my  father,  who 
at  his  death  recommended  me  to  continue  it 
and  leave  it  to  my  sons  and  grandsons,  who 
should  also  be  brought  up  to  the  trade.  I 
have  done  so,  but  it  is  a  hard  struggle  for 
three  of  us  to  live  by  it. ' 

"  I  then  suggested  that  one  or  more  of  his 
sons  should  learn  the  new  method  of  basket- 
making,  which  would  improve  his  business 
at  once.  This  idea  did  not  seem  to  be  re- 
ceived favorably  by  the  old  man  and  the  eld- 
est son  ;  but  the  boy  caught  at  it  and  asked 
if  he  could  go  and  learn.  Encouraged  by  his 
evident  willingness,  I  prevailed  upon  the  fa- 
ther to  allow  me  to  place  his  son  in  the  In- 
dustrial School,  where  I  hear  he  has  made 
certain  progress  in  his  art."  The  Turkish 
mechanic  has  no  power  of  invention,  and  his 
work  lacks  finish  ;  but  he  is  capable  of  im- 
itating with  some  success  any  design  shown 
to  him. 

The  life  led  by  the  Turkish  tradespeople  is 
extremely  monotonous  and  brightened  by  no 
intellectual  pleasures.  The  shopkeeper,  on 
leaving  his  house  at  dawn,  goes  to  the  coffee- 
house, takes  his  small  cup  of  coffee,  smokes 
his  pipe,  chats  with  the  liabitues  of  the  place, 
and  then  proceeds  to  his  business,  which  is 
carried  on  with  Oriental  languor  throughout 
the  day.  At  sunset  he  again  resorts  to  the 
coffee-house  to  take  the  same  refreshment 
and  enjoy  the  innovation  of  having  a  news- 
paper read  to  him — a  novelty  now  much  ap- 
preciated by  the  lower  classes.  He  then  re- 
turns to  the  bosom  of  his  family  in  time  for 
the  evening  meal.  His  home  is  clean  though 
very  simple  ;  his  wife  and  daughters  are  ig- 
norant aud  never  taught  a  trade  by  which 
they  might  earn  anything.  Embroidery,  in- 
dispensable in  a  number  of  useless  articles 
that  serve  to  figure  in  the  trousseau  of  every 
Turkish  girl,  and  latterly  coarse  needle  and 
crochet  work,  fill  up  part  of  the  time,  while 
the  mothers  attend  to  their  household  affairs. 
The  young  children  are  sent  to  the  element- 
ary school,  and  the  boys  either  go  to  school 
or  arc  apprenticed  to  some  trade. 

A  considerable  proportion  of  the  Turks  be- 
long to  the  army.  The  officers,  however, 
unlike  those  of  their  class  in  Europe,  do  not 
enjoy  the  prestige  or  rank  to  which  the  mer- 
its of  the  profession  entitle  them.  It  follows 
that  the  individuality  of  the  officer  is  not 
taken  into  account :  if  he  possesses  any  spe- 
cial ability,  it  is  overlooked  so  long  as  superi- 
ority of  rank  does  not  enforce  it  and  obtain 
for  him  proper  respect  from  soldiers  and  civ- 
ilians. A  Turkish  captain  does  not  receive 
much  more  consideration  from  his  senior  offi- 
cer than  does  a  common  private  ;  and  in  a 
moment  of  anger  his  colonel  or  general  may 
strike  anr1  use  foul  and  abusive  language  to 
him  :  a  Jiajor  is  barely  secure  from  such 
treatment.    There  are  certainly  men  of  merit 


THE   PEOPLE  OF   TURKEY. 


15 


and  education  among  the  officers  of  the 
Turkish  army,  whose  behavior,  like  that  of 
the  soldiers,  is  much  praised  by  those  who 
have  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  the  ad- 
mirable manner  in  which  they  conducted 
themselves  in  the  late  war.  Unfortunately  it 
is  principally  in  individual  cases  that  this 
can  be  admitted,  and  it  can  by  no  means  ap- 
plyto  the  whole  body  of  officers. 

When  not  in  active  service  Turkish  officers 
generally  have  their  wives  and  families  in 
the  towns  in  which  they  are  stationed.  The 
pay  of  an  officer  under  the  rank  of  a  general 
is  very  inadequate  and  is  irregularly  received 
— a  fact  sadly  evident  in  their  neglected  and 
disordered  appearance.  With  boots  down  at 
heel  and  coats  minus  half  the  buttons,  they 
may  often  be  seen  purchasing  their  own  food 
in  the  market  and  carrying  it  home  in  their 
hands. 

The  young  officers  who  have  pursued  their 
studies  in  the  military  schools  present  a 
marked  contrast  to  these.  They  are  well 
dressed  and  have  an  air  of  smartness,  and  in 
military  science  they  are  said  to  be  far  more 
advanced  than  those  who  have  preceded 
them.  The  training  they  receive,  however, 
is  by  no  means  a  perfect  one,  and  much  will 
be  needed  before  the  Turkish  officer  can  rise 
to  a  level  with  the  European. 

Their  wives  are  women  from  the  towns  ; 
as  they  generally  follow  their  husbands  to 
the  different  stations  allotted  to  them,  they 
obtain  some  knowledge  of  the  world  by  trav- 
elling in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  are 
conversable  and  pleasant  to  associate  with. 

The  sons  of  all  good  and  wealthy  families 
in  the  capital  are  either  placed  in  the  military 
schools  or  sent  to  the  Kalem  (Chancellerie 
d'Etat),  where  the  majority  of  the  upper 
class  Turkish  youth  are  initiated  into  official 
routine  and  receive  different  grades  as  they 
proceed,  the  highest  rank  accorded  corre- 
sponding with  that  of  Serik  (general  of  divi- 
sion). The  officials  who  pass  through  this 
school  are  generally  more  polished  in  man- 
ner, more  liberal  in  their  ideas,  and  superior 
in  many  respect3  to  the  mean  creatures  who 
in  former  times  were  intrusted  with  offices 
for  which  they  were  quite  unfit.  This  prac- 
tice of  appointing  Ohiboukjis  (pipe-bearers) 
and  other  persons  of  low  origin  as  Mudirs 
(governors  of  large  villages)  and  Kaimakams 
(governors  of  districts),  is  now  less  in  force, 
and  is  limited  to  Governors-general,  who 
sometimes  send  their  servants  to  occupy 
these  positions.  A  Mudir  may  become  a 
Kaimakam,  and  a  Eaimakam  a  Pasba,  but 
the  top  ranks  can  be  obtained  without  pass- 
ing through  the  lower  grades.  The  inferior 
official  placed  over  each  village  is  the  Mukhtar. 
He  may  be  Christian  or  Moslem,  according 
to  the  population  ;  in  mixed  villages  two  are 
generally  chosen  to  represent  the  respective 
creeds.  These  functionaries  are  intrusted 
with  the  administration  of  the  village  ;  they 
collect  the  taxes,  and  adjust  the  differences 
that  arise  among  the  peasants.  They  are  too 
insignificant  to  do  much  good  or  much  harm, 
unless  they  arc  very  vicious.  The  Mudirs 
are  at  the  head  of  the  administration  of  their 
villages  and  of  the  medjliss  or  council,  in 
which  members  chosen  by  the  people  take 
part.  Mutessarifs  are  sub- governors  of  Kazas 
or  large  districts,  and  Valis,  Governors-gen 
eral  of  vilayets. 

All  this  body  of  officials,  together  with  the 
Defterdars  (treasurers),  Mektebjis  (secretaries 
of  the  Pashalik),  politico  memours  (political 
agents),  etc.,  taken  as  a  whole,  are  seldom 
fitted  for  their  posts  :  they  are  ignorant  and 
unscrupulous  and  much  more  bent  upon  se- 
curing their  personal  interests  than  the  wel- 
fare of  their  country. 

It  must,  however,  in  justice  be  said  that, 
owing  to  the  large  sums  the  higher  officials 
have  to  disburse  in  order  to  obtain  their  ap- 
pointments, the  great  expense  entailed  in  fre- 
quently moving  themselves  and  their  families 
from  one  extremity  of  the  empire  to  the 
other,  and  the  irregular  and  meagre  pay  the 


minor  officials  receive,  it  is  impossible  for 
them  to  live  without  resorting  to  some  illicit 
means  of  increasing  their  incomes.  And  it 
must  be  admitted  that  praiseworthy  excep- 
tions are  to  be  found  here  and  there  among 
both  the  higher  and  the  lower  officials. 

The  case  is  very  simple.  A  man  has  to 
pay  a  vast  sum  of  money  to  various  influen- 
tial people  in  order  to  get  a  certain  post.  His 
pay  is  nothing  much  to  speak  of.  He  is  lia- 
ble to  be  ejected  by  some  one's  caprice  at 
any  moment.  If  he  is  to  repay  his  "  election 
expenses"  and  collect  a  small  reserve  fund, 
he  must  give  up  all  idea  of  honesty.  An 
honest  official  in  Turkey  means  a  bankrupt. 
Under  the  S3'stem  of  favoritism  and  bribery 
no  course  but  that  of  corruption  and  extor- 
tion is  open  to  the  official.  Ilfaut  bien  vivre  ; 
and  so  long  as  the  old  system  exists  one  must 
do  in  Turkey  as  the  rest  of  the  Turks  do.  It 
is  utterly  corrupt ;  but  it  must  be  reformed 
from  the  top  downwards. 

People  in  the  East  never  think  of  asking 
what  was  the  origin  of  pashas  or  in  what 
manner  they  have  attained  their  high  station. 
Genealogical  trees  in  Turkey  are  not  cultivat- 
ed ;  most  of  the  old  stems  (as  explained  in 
Part  II.,  Chap.  I.)  were  uprooted  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century  ;  their 
branches,  lopped  off  and  scattered  in  all  di- 
rections, have  in  some  instances  taken  fresh 
root  and  started  into  a  new  existence  ;  but 
they  no  longer  represent  the  strength  of  the 
ancient  trunk.  The  important  body  of  beys, 
pashas,  etc.,  thus  abolished,  had  to  be  re- 
placed by  a  new  body  selected  without  much 
scrutiny  from  the  crowd  of  adventurers  who 
were  always  awaiting  some  turn  of  fortune 
whereby  they  might  be  put  into  some  official 
position  and  mend  their  finances. 

Yusbashi  A.,  one  of  the  chief  leaders  of 
the  Bashi-Bazouks,  who  performed  the  work 
of  destruction  at  the  beginning  of  the  Bulga- 
rian troubles,  was  subsequently  sent  to  Con- 
stantinople by  the  military  authorities  to  be 
hung  ;  but  being  reprieved  and  pardoned,  he 
was   promoted  to  the  rank  of    Pasha.     He 

had  come,  when  a  boy,  to  the  town  of  T 

as  an  apprentice  in  a  miserable  barber's  shop  ; 
later  on  he  left  his  master  and  entered  the 
service  of  a  native  bey.  During  the  Crimean 
war  he  joined  the  Bashi-Bazouks,  and  when 
peace  was  made  returned  to  the  town  with 
the  rank  of  captain  and  a  certain  amount  of 
money,  which  he  invested  in  land.  By  ex 
tortion  and  oppression  of  every  kind  exer- 
cised upon  his  peasants,  he  soon  became  a 
person  of  consequence  in  the  town.  Later 
on  this  man  found  his  way  to  the  Konak, 
was  appointed  member  of  the  council,  and 
was  placed  upon  some  commission  by  which 
he  was  enabled,  through  a  series  of  illegal 
proceedings,  to  double  and  triple  his  fortune 
at  the  expense  of  the  Government  revenues. 
The  misdeeds  of  this  man  and  some  of  his 
associates  becoming  too  flagrant  to  be  longer 
overlooked,  the  Porte  sent  a  commission  to 
examine  the  Government  defters  or  accounts. 
The  captain,  by  no  means  frightened,  but 
determined  to  avoid  further  trouble  in  the 
matter,  is  said  to  have  set  fire  to  the  Konak 
in  several  places,  so  that  all  the  documents 
that  would  have  compromised  him  were  de- 
stroyed and  the  Pasha  and  commission  who 
came  to  inspect  his  doings  barely  escaped 
with  their  lives.  Knowing  the  desperate 
character  of  the  man  they  had  to  deal  with, 
they  were  alarmed,  and  unfeignedly  glad  to 
get  away  and  hush  the  matter  up. 

Thus  the  illustrious  line  of  Pashas  and 
Grand  Vizirs,  like  the  Kiprilis,  was  put  aside 
and  replaced  by  a  long  list  of  nonentities 
who,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  such  as 
Ali  and  Fuad  Pashas,  cannot  be  said  to  have 
benefited  their  country  in  any  remarkable  de- 
gree, or  to  have  shown  any  special  qualifica- 
tions as  statesmen. 

The  title  of  Grand  Vizir,  now  nominally 
abolished,  was  one  of  the  oldest  and  the 
highest  given  to  a  civil  functionary.  His 
appointment,  being  of  a  temporal  nature,  de- 


pended entirely  upon  the  will  of  the  Sultan, 
who  might  at  his  pleasure  load  the  Vizir 
with  honors,  or  relieve  him  of  his  head. 
This  unpleasant  uncertainty  as  to  the  future 
attached  to  the  Vizir's  office  gradually  almost 
disappeared  as  the  Sultans  began  to  recog- 
nize the  indispensable  services  rendered  to 
them  by  an  able  Grand  Vizir.  They  began 
to  appreciate  the  comfort  of  having  ministers 
to  think  for  them,  make  laws,  and  scheme 
reforms  in  their  name  ;  and  this  confidence, 
so  agreeable  to  an  indolent  Sultan,  and  so 
convenient  to  an  irresponsible  minister, 
was  the  ruling  principle  of  the  constitution 
during  the  reign  of  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid,  who 
was  affable  to  his  ministers,  changed  them 
less  frequently  than  his  ancestors  did,  and 
loaded  them  indiscriminately  with  decora 
tions  and  gifts.  Not  so  his  wayward  and 
capricious  brother  and  successor  Abdul- Aziz, 
who  scrupled  not,  on  the  slightest  pretext,  to 
dismiss  his  Grand  Vizir.  A.  trifling  change 
in  his  personal  appearance,  a  divergence  of 
opinion,  timidly  expressed  by  the  humble 
minister  —  who  stood  with  hands  crossed, 
dervish-fashion,  on  his  shoulders,  in  the  atti- 
tude of  an  obedient  slave — just  as  much  as  a 
more  serious  fault,  such  as  casting  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  his  Imperial  Majesty  with  re- 
gard to  his  exorbitant  demands  on  the  treas- 
ury, were  sufficient  to  seal  the  fate  of  the 
daring  Sadrazam.  But  in  spite  of  the  diffi- 
culties and  drawbacks  and  humiliations  of 
the  post,  a  Grand  Vizir  continued  to  be,  after 
the  Sultan,  the  most  influential  person  in  the 
country.  The  gates  of  his  Konak  were  at 
once  thrown  open,  and  the  other  ministers 
and  functionaries  flocked  to  pay  their  re- 
spects to  him.  The  governors  of  districts 
telegraphed  their  felicitations,  while  the  ante 
chamber  and  courts  of  his  house  and  office 
were  rarely  free  from  the  presence  of  a  regu- 
lar army  of  office-hunters,  petitioners,  der- 
vishes, old  women,  and  beggars,  waiting  for 
an  audience  or  a  chance  glimpse  of  the  min- 
ister on  his  exit,  when  each  individual  pressed 
forward  to  bring  his  or  her  claim  to  his  no- 
tice. Pek  aye,  bakalum  olour*  were  the 
words  that  generally  dropped  from  the 
mouths  even  of  the  least  amiable  Vizirs  on 
such  occasions — words  of  hope  that  were 
eagerly  caught  by  the  interested  parties,  as 
well  as  by  the  numerous  cortege  of  kyatibs, 
servants,  and  favorites  of  the  great  man  who, 
according  to  the  importance  of  the  affairs  or 
the  station  of  the  applicant,  willingly  under- 
took to  be  the  advocate  of  the  cause,  guaran- 
teeing its  success  by  the  counter-guarantee 
of  receiving  the  rushvets  or  bribes  needed  in 
all  stages  of  the  affair.  This  method  of 
transacting  business,  very  general  in  Turkey, 
is  called  hatir,  or  by  favor  ;  its  extent  is 
unlimited,  and  its  application  varied  and  un- 
defined ;  it  can  pardon  the  crime  of  murder, 
imprison  an  innocent  person,  liberate  a  con- 
demned criminal,  take  away  the  property  of 
one  minister  to  present  it  to  another,  remove 
governors  from  their  posts  just  as  you  change 
places  in  a  quadrille,  or  simply  turn  out  one 
set,  as  in  the  cotillon,  to  make  room  for  an- 
other. Anything  and  everything  can  in  fact 
be  brought  about  by  this  system,  except  a 
divorce  when  the  plea  is  not  brought  by  the 
husband. 

I  have  particularized  the  Grand  Vizir  as 
doing  business  in  this  way  merely  because  it 
was  he  who  was  more  appealed  to  in  this 
manner  than  the  other  ministers,  not  because 
the  others  do  not  follow  closely  in  his  steps. 
Their  duties  are  extensive  and  important,  and 
demand  for  their  proper  and  exact  perform- 
ance not  only  intelligence,  but  also  high 
educational  qualifications,  which,  with  rare 
exceptions,  Turkish  officials  do  not  possess 
— a  capital  defect,  which,  added  to  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  period  they  are  likely  to  remain 
in  office,  and  the  systematic  practice,  pur- 
sued by  each  successive  minister,  of  trying 
to  undo  what  his  predecessor  had  done  for 

*  "  Very  well,  we  shall  see,  it  may  be  done." 


16 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


the  country,  and  of  dismissing  most  of  the 
civil  officials  and  provincial  governors  to  re- 
place them  by  some  from  his  own  set,  great- 
ly contributes  to  increase  maladministration, 
and  to  create  the  disorder  that  has  long  pre- 
vailed in  Turkey. 

About  honesty  I  need  not  speak,  for  no 
business  of  any  kind  is  undertaken  without 
bribery  ;  even  if  the  minister  should  be  above 
this,  there  are  plenty  of  people  surrounding 
him  who  would  not  be  so  scrupulous.  Kib- 
rizli  Mehemet  Pasha  was  one  of  the  few  high 
officials  against  whom  no  charge  of  the  kind 
could  be  brought,  but  his  Kavass-Baihi  con- 
descended to  take  even  so  small  a  sum  as  five 
piastres  as  a  bribe.  This  Pasha  was  a  thor- 
ough gentleman,  high-minded  both  in  his 
administrative  affairs  and  family  life.  After 
he  lost  his  position  as  Grand  Vizir,  I  had  oc- 
casion to  see  a  great  deal  of  him  ;  he  took 
the  reverses  of  fortune  with  great  calmness 
and  sang-froid ;  so  do  all  Turks  meet  ' '  the 
slings  and  arrows  of  outrageous  fortune." 

The  fall  of  a  minister  was  generally  ru- 
mored some  time  before  it  took  place,  during 
which  period  he  and  those  around  him  tried 
to  make  the  most  of  the  opportunities  left  to 
them,  while  the  opposition  continued  their 
intrigues  until  the  blow  finally  fell.  When 
this  happened  the  Sadrazam  remained  at 
home,  the  gates  of  his  Konak  were  closed, 
and  the  world,  including  his  best  friends, 
would  pass  without  venturing  to  enter  ;  the 
only  visitors  would  be  his  banker,  doctor, 
and  creditors,  who  in  prosperity  and  adver- 
sity never  neglect  this  duty. 

During  the  administration  of  a  Grand  Vi- 
zir, his  harem  was  also  called  upon  to  play 
its  part  and  take  the  lead  in  the  female  so- 
ciety of  Stamboul.  The  salon  of  the  chief 
wife,  like  that  of  her  husband,  would  be 
thrown  open,  and  crowds  of  visitors,  includ- 
ing the  wives  of  the  other  ministers, would  ar- 
rive to  offer  their  respects  and  felicitations.and 
demand  favors  and  promotions  for  their  sons 
or  posts  for  their  husbands.  All  these  visi- 
tors, on  their  arrival,  were  ushered  into  the 
antechamber  according  to  their  respective 
Stations,  where  they  took  off  their  feridjes  and 
refreshed  themselves  with  sweets,  coffee, 
sherbets,  etc.  The  interval  between  this  and 
their  reception,  sometimes  of  several  hours' 
duration,  was  spent  in  conversation  among 
the  visitors,  in  which  some  of  the  ladies  of 
the  household,  or  some  visitors  staying  in 
the  house,  would  join,  until  they  were  re- 
quested to  proceed  to  the  drawing-room. 
"When  the  hostess  appeared  all  would  rise 
from  their  seats,  walk  towards  the  door, 
make  temenlas  and  deep  obeisances,  and  en- 
deavor to  kiss  her  foot  or  the  hem  of  her 
garment,  an  act  of  homage  which  she  would 
accept,  but  gracefully  and  with  much  dignity 
try  to  prevent  in  those  of  high  rank  by  say 
ing  Mafourla  (Excuse  me — don't  do  it).  The 
conversation,  started  afresh,  would  depend 
for  subjects  upon  the  disposition  and  tact  of 
the  mistress  of  the  house  ;  but  would  chiefly 
consist  in  flattery  and  adulation,  carried 
sometimes  to  a  ridiculous  extent.  The  man- 
ner  of  the  hanoum  effendi  would  be  smooth 
and  friendly  towards  the  partisans  of  her 
husband,  curt  towards  those  of  the  opposi- 
tion, but  patronizing  and  protecting  in  its 
general  tone  towards  all.  Should  the  Vizir's 
lady  be  of  the  unprincipled  type,  the  conver- 
sation would  bear  a  different  cacliet.  I  was 
told  by  some  distinguished  Turkish  ladies 
that  when  they  paid  a  visit  to  the  wife  of  a 
short-lived  Vizir,  the  lady,  both  old  and  ugly, 
entertained  them  with  a  recital  of  the  follies 
and  weaknesses  of  her  husband  and  exposed 
some  of  her  own  not  more  select  proceedings 
into  the  bargain. 

The  wife  of  a  Grand  Vizir  also  played  a 
great  part  with  regard  to  the  changes,  ap- 
pointments, and  dismissions  which  followed 
each  new  Vizirate,  by  the  influence  she  ex- 
ercised both  over  him  and  also  in  high  quar- 
ters, where  she  often  found  means  to  make 
herself  as  influential  as  at  home. 


I  have  often  been  asked  what  a  Turkish 
lady  does  all  day  long  ?  Does  she  sleep  or  eat 
sugar-plums,  and  is  she  kept  under  lock  and 
key  by  a  Blue-Beard  of  a  husband,  who  allows 
her  only  the  liberty  of  waiting  upon  him  1 
A  Turkish  lady  is  certainly  shut  up  in  a 
harem,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  she  is 
at  liberty  to  indulge  in  the  above-mentioned 
luxuries,  should  she  feel  so  disposed  ;  she  has 
possibly,  at  times,  to  submit  to  being  locked 
up.  but  the  key  is  applied  to  the  outer  gates, 
and  is  left  in  the  keeping  of  the  friendly 
eunuch.  Besides,  woman  is  said  to  have  a 
will  of  her  own,  and  "  where  there  is  a  will 
there  is  a  way"  is  a  proverb  to  wThich  Turk- 
ish ladies  are  no  strangers.  I  have  seldom 
met  with  one  who  did  not  make  use  of  her 
liberty  ;  in  one  sense  she  may  not  have  so 
much  freedom  as  Englishwomen  have,  but  in 
many  others  she  possesses  more.  In  her 
home  she  is  perfect  mistress  of  her  time  and 
of  her  property,  which  she  can  dispose  of  as 
she  thinks  proper.  Should  she  have  cause 
of  complaint  against  any  one,  she  is  allowed 
to  be  very  open  spoken,  holds  her  ground, 
and  fights  her  own  battles  with  astonishing 
coolness  and  decision. 

Turkish  ladies  appreciate  to  the  full  as 
much  as  their  husbands  the  virtues  of  the 
indispensable  cup  of  coffee  and  cigarette  ; 
this  is  their  first  item  in  the  day's  programme. 
The  hanoums  may  next  take  a  bath,  the 
young  ladies  wash  at  the  ablest  hours  ;  the 
slaves  when  they  can  find  time.  The  ha- 
noum will  then  attend  to  her  husband's  wants, 
bring  him  his  pipe  and  coffee,  his  slippers 
and  pelisse.  While  smoking  he  will  sit  on 
the  sofa,  whilst  his  wife  occupies  a  lower 
position  near  him,  and  the  slaves  roll  up  the 
bedding  from  the  floor.  If  the  gentleman  be 
a  government  functionary  the  official  bag 
will  be  brought  in,  and  he  will  look  over  his 
documents,  examining  some,  affixing  his  seal 
to  others,  saying  a  few  words  in  the  inter- 
vals to  his  wife,  who  always  addresses  him 
in  a  ceremonious  manner  with  great  defer- 
ence and  respect.  The  children  will  then 
trot  in  in  their  gedjliks  with  the  hair  un- 
combed, to  be  caressed,  and  ask  for  money 
with  which  to  buy  sweets  and  cakes.  The 
custom  of  giving  pence  to  children  daily  is 
so  prevalent  that  it  is  practised  even  by  the 
poor. 

The  children,  after  an  irregular  breakfast, 
are  sent  to  school  or  allowed  to  roam  about 
the  house  ;  the  effendi  proceeds  to  perform 
his  out-of-door  toilet  and  leaves  the  haremlik, 
when  the  female  portion  of  the  establish- 
ment, freed  from  the  pleasure  or  obligation 
of  attending  to  his  wants,  begin  the  day's  oc- 
cupation. If  this  should  include  any  special 
or  unusual  household  work,  such  as  pre- 
serve-making, washing  or  ironing,  or  general 
house-cleaning,  the  lady,  be  she  of  the 
highest  position,  will  take  part  in  it  with  the 
slaves.  This  is  certainly  not  necessary,  for 
she  has  plenty  of  menials,  but  is  (lone 
in  order  to  fill  up  the  day,  many  hours  of 
which  necessarily  hang  heavily  on  her  hands 
when  not  enlivened  by  visiting  or  being  vis- 
ited. In  the  capital,  however,  less  of  this 
kind  of  employment  is  indulged  in  by  the 
fashionable  hanoums,  who  are  trying  to  cre- 
ate a  taste  for  European  occupations  by 
learning  music,  foreign  languages,  and  fine 
needle-work.  The  time  for  dressing  is  ir- 
regular. A  lady  may  think  proper  to  do  her 
hair  and  make  herself  tidy  for  luncheon,  or 
she  may  remain  in  her  gedjlik  and  slippers  all 
day.  This  fashion  of  receiving  visitors  en 
neglige  is  not  considered  at  all  peculiar  unless 
the  visit  has  been  announced  beforehand. 

Visiting  and  promenading,  the  principal 
amusements  of  Turkish  ladies,  are  both 
affairs  of  very  great  importance.  Permission 
has  previously  to  be  asked  from  the  husband, 
who,  if  liberally  disposed,  freely  grants  it ; 
but  if  jealous  and  strict,  he  will  disapprove 
of  seeing  his  family  often  out  of  doors. 
When  a  walk  or  drive  is  projected  the  chil- 
dren all  begin  to  clamor  to  go  with  their 


mother.  Scarcely  is  this  question  settled  by 
coaxing  or  giving  them  money,  than  another 
arises  as  to  which  of  the  slaves  are  to  be  al- 
lowed to  go.  Tears,  prayers,  and  even  little 
quarrels  and  disturbances  follow,  until  the 
mistress  finally  selects  her  party.  The  de- 
tails of  the  toilette  are  very  numerous  ;  the 
face  has  to  be  blanched,  then  rouged,  the 
eyebrows  and  lashes  to  be  blackened  with 
surme,  and  a  variety  of  other  little  coquetries 
resorted  to  requiring  time  and  patience  be- 
fore the  final  adjustment  of  the  yashmak  and 
feridge. 

Then  comes  the  scramble  for  places  in  the 
carriage,  the  hanoums  naturally  scat  them- 
selves first,  the  rest  squeeze  themselves  in, 
and  sit  upon  each  other's  knees.  It  is  won- 
derful to  see  how  well  they  manage  this  close 
packing,  and  how  long  they  can  endure  the 
uncomfortable  postures  in  which  they  are 
fixed. 

If  the  excursion  is  solely  for  visiting,  the 
occupants  of  the  carriages  make  the  best  of 
the  time  and  liberty  by  coquetting  with  the 
grooms  and  agas  in  attendance,  should  these 
be  young  and  handsome,  and  sending  sa- 
laams to  the  passers-by,  mingled  with  laughter 
and  frolic.  But  when  the  excursion  has  a 
picnic  in  prospective,  or  a  long  drive  into  the 
country,  the  gayety  and  fun  indulged  in  is 
bewildering  ;  and  the  luinoums  can  only  be 
compared  to  a  flock  of  strange  birds  suddenly 
let  loose  from  their  cages,  not  knowing  what 
to  make  of  their  new  freedom.  Flirting, 
smoking,  eating  fruits  and  sweets,  walking 
about,  running,  or  lounging  on  the  carpets 
they  bring  with  them,  varied  by  music  and 
singing,  fill  the  day.  They  usually  set  out 
early  and  return  before  sunset  in  time  to  re- 
ceive their  master  on  his  visit  to  the  harem 
before  dinner.  When  this  meal  is  over,  the 
company,  comfortably  dressed  in  their  neglige 
costume,  indulge  in  coffee  and  cigarettes, 
and  the  events  of  the  day  are  discussed. 
The  ladies  then  retire  to  rest  at  an  early  hour, 
and  rise  the  next  day  to  go  through  the  same 
routine. 

At  the  foot  of  the  imperial  throne  we  see 
the  princes,  who,  like  children  at  dessert,  are 
to  be  seen,  not  heard.  They  now  enjoy  a 
degree  of  freedom  before  unknown,  and  their 
wants  and  caprices  are  to  a  certain  extent 
satisfied  by  allowances  from  the  Sultan.  In 
childhood  and  youth  they  are  masters  of 
their  own  time,  and  employ  it  as  they  please, 
On  emerging  from  boyhood  they  are  fur- 
nished with  harems ;  some  more  distantly 
related  to  the  reigning  Sultan  are  allowed  to 
have  children  ;  but  the  others  are  denied  that 
privilege.  All  these  members  of  the  impe- 
rial family  live  a  very  secluded  life.  They 
are  not  allowed  to  take  any  part  in  the  ad- 
ministrative, hold  commissions  in  the  army 
or  navy,  or  enter  the  civil  service.  The  only 
exception  to  this  rule  was  the  son  of  the  late 
Sultan  Abdul-Aziz,  who,  at  the  age  of  en, 
was,  I  believe,  a  captain  in  the  army,  and  a 
few  years  later  was  made  a  general.  This  is 
said  to  have  given  the  occasion  for  a  reproach 
made  to  the  prince  by  his  father,  who  at  the 
moment  of  his  deposition  turned  to  him  and 
said,  "  My  son,  I  placed  you  in  the  military 
school  where  you  remained  three  years  with- 
out making  a  single  friend";  see  what  this 
has  now  led  to  1" 

This  reproach  of  being  friendless  ad- 
dressed to  any  of  the  princes  is  unjust,  as 
they  are  not  allowed  to  make  friendships. 
Friends  for  a  prince  mean  a  party,  and  a 
party  means  cabals  and  conspiracies,  so  all 
such  dangerous  connections  are  carefully 
suppressed,  and  the  prince,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  suspicion  and  espionage  by  which 
he  is  surrounded,  is  as  little  disposed  to  have 
any  friends  among  the  influential  classes  and 
men  of  rank  as  they  are  to  court  his  friend- 
ship or  approach  him  too  closely.  A  per- 
sonal friend  of  the  ex-Sultan  Murad  told  me 
that  in  early  youth  that  prince  and  he  had 
been  very  much  thrown  together,  and  a  sin- 
cere affection  had  sprung  up  between  them, 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


17 


which,  however,  on  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid's 
death,  had  to  lie  entirely  given  up.  itsire 
meetings  between  them  could  only  be  ar- 
ranged when  the  prince  went  to  Pera  on 
shopping  expeditions.  Thus  the  Ottoman 
princes,  spoilt  in  childhood,  secluded  from 
active  public  life,  are  left  to  vegetate  in  their 
respective  homes. 

The  Princes  of  the  Blood  and  all  relations 
of  the  late  Sultan  used  always  to  be  cleared 
out  of  the  way  on  the  accession  of  a  new 
Padishah;  but  the  custom  has  fallen  into 
disusa  since  the  time  of  Mahmoud  II.,  who 
found  it  necessary  to  order  the  strangulation 
of  the  deposed  Sultan,  the  drowning  in  sacks 
of  174  of  his  wives  and  odalisks,  and  also  the 
decapitation  of  a  great  number  of  other  per- 
sons. This  measure,  considered  needful  to 
insure  the  inviolability  of  his  person,  as  the 
only  remaining  representative  of  the  house  of 
Othrnan,  soon  put  an  end  to  the  rebellion 
that  had  occasioned  his  ascension  to  the 
throne.  On  the  day  of  his  proclamation  as 
Sultan,  thirty-three  heads  were  exposed  at 
the  gate  of  the  Seraglio  to  bear  evidence  to 
the  fact.  Rebellion,  fire,  and  murder,  it 
was  said,  could  not  be  otherwise  put  down 
than  by  counter-violence,  and  the  extreme 
measures  adopted  by  the  new  sovereign 
ended  in  the  restoration  of  order  in  the  capi- 
tal. 

Notwithstanding  this  black  page  in  the 
history  of  Mahmoud,  this  Sultan,  to  whom 
history  has  not  yet  done  justice,  was  one  of 
the  best,  most  enlightened,  and  powerful  of 
Ottoman  sovereigns. 

Unlike  most  of  his  predecessors,  he  had 
not  wasted  the  long  years  of  captivity  in  idle- 
ness and  frivolous  occupations,  but  had  seri- 
ously employed  them  in  study.  He  originat- 
ed the  material  changes  that  have  since  been 
made  in  the  life  of  seraglio  inmates,  and  also 
endeavored  to  better  the  condition  of  his 
Christian  subjects.  Whatever  progress  has 
been  made  by  the  Turkish  Mohammedans 
in  the  road  of  civilization  must  also  be  attrib- 
uted to  his  efforts.  Amid  wars  without  and 
revolts  within,  the  discontent  of  the  Moslems 
at  the  attempted  innovations,  the  clamoring 
of  the  Christians  for  the  amelioration  of  their 
condition,  the  Sultan  struggled  on  for  thirty 
years  with  a  perseverance  worthy  of  the 
cause,  till  death  put  an  end  to  his  work.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  liberal  but 
weak-minded  Abdul-Medjid. 

The  young  Sultan  was  well  imbued  with 
the  ideas  of  his  father,  but  less  capable  of 
carrying  them  out ;  yet  he  showed  himself 
liberal  and  sincerely  desirous  of  improving 
the  degraded  condition  into  which  the  coun- 
try had  fallen. 

The  security  of  life  and  property  became 
greater  under  his  rule.  Executions  and  con- 
fiscation of  property  became  less  frequent, 
and  a  general  change  for  the  better  in  the 
material  existence  of  the  people  was  decreed  ; 
but  unfortunately  the  Sultan  could  not  insure 
the  carrying  out  of  his  decrees.  The  ex- 
chequer, impoverished  by  the  extravagance 
of  the  palace  and  the  corruption  of  the  offi- 
cials, was  on  the  brink  of  bankruptcy,  which 
was  only  postponed  by  the  foreign  loans  ob- 
tained in  the  succeeding  reign. 

Had  t  lie  Sultan's  perseverance  in  seeing 
these  changes  enforced  been  equal  to  his 
ercd-will  in  ordaining  them,  Turkey  might 
have  been  spared  many  of  its  present  mis- 
eries. 

He  was  beloved  by  his  subjects,  who,  in 
the  midst  of  their  misery,  forgave  his  weak- 
ness in  remembering  his  gentleness  and  be- 
nevolence to  those  who  appealed  to  his  mercy. 
His  aversion  to  bloodshed  was  so  great  that 
he  was  never  known  to  decree  a  single  exe- 
cution. This  was,  of  course,  a  serious  hin- 
drance to  carrying  on  the  judicial  arrange- 
ments of  the  country.  In  cases  of  urgent 
necessity  his  signature  had  to  be  obtained 
by  subterfuge. 

A  lover  of  pleasure  and  ease,  Abdul-Med- 
jid, on  coming  to  the  throne,  soon  plunged 


into  that  life  of  self-indulgence,  luxury,  and 
excess,  which  at  once  began  to  tell  upon 
his  delicate  constitution  and  by  degrees  af- 
fected in  a  most  fatal  manner  his  moral  and 
physical  faculties  ;  and  he  died  of  exhaustion 
on  June  26th,  18(31. 

His  successor,  Abdul-Aziz,  had  been  the 
first  to  profit  by  the  indulgence  and  liberality 
of  his  brother,  who  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  his  reign  showed  him  genuine  brotherly 
affection,  allowed  him  uncontrolled  freedom 
as  heir-apparent,  and  furnished  him  with  a 
very  liberal  income,  making  a  point  of  never 
getting  any  object  of  value  for  himself, 
without  offering  its  equivalent  to  his  bro- 
ther. 

Abdul-Aziz,  however,  did  not  make  any 
good  use  of  the  liberty  he  enjoyed  before 
coming  to  the  throne.  Sensual,  extravagant, 
and  narrow-minded,  his  occupations  and 
pleasures  were  anything  but  imperial :  his 
wasteful  habits  were  ruinous  to  his  country, 
whilst  his  want  of  judgment  and  foresight 
prevented  his  realizing  the  fatal  effects  of  his 
conduct.  This  may,  however,  be  accounted 
for,  to  a  great  extent,  by  the  fact  that  he  was 
subject  at  times  to  merak  (aberration  of 
mind).  From  an  early  age  he  began  to  give 
signs  of  that  whimsical,  suspicious,  and 
morose  disposition  which  during  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign  became  the  principal  char- 
acteristic of  his  nature. 

Unlike  his  brother,  Abdul-Medjid,  he  was 
strongly  built,  and  his  personal  appearance 
was  singularly  unattractive.  His  tastes  and 
amusements,  very  much  in  harmony  with  his 
exterior,  showed  themselves  in  all  kinds  of 
extravagant  and  odd  fancies.  Cock-fighting 
was  a  spectacle  in  which  he  greatly  delight- 
ed, by  turns  decorating  or  exiling  the  com- 
batants. 

In  his  moments  of  good-humor  he  often 
imposed  a  wrestling  match  upon  his  minis- 
ters and  favorites,  at  times  taking  an  active 
part  -  in  the  sport.  The  celebrated  Nevrez 
Pasha,  half  knave,  half  fool,  who  from  the 
lowest  stage  of  seraglio  functions  had  been 
raised  to  a  ministerial  position,  was  the  one 
generally  chosen  by  the  Sultan  with  whom 
to  measure  his  strength. 

The  corpulent  Pasha  never  failed  to  be  the 
beaten  party ;  the  ludicrous  attitudes  into 
which  he  fell  and  his  jokes  gave  him  a 
higher  grade  whenever  they  were  called  into 
play,  and  caused  him  to  say  that  every  kick 
he  received  from  the  imperial  foot  was  worth 
to  him  a  Nuhan  (a  decoration),  a  konak,  or 
a  vizirlik. 

It  would,  however,  be  unfair  not  to  ac- 
knowledge in  this  Sultan  some  good  services 
rendered  to  his  country. 

One  of  these  is  the  purchase  of  the  fine  fleet 
of  iron-clads  the  Porte  now  possesses;  an- 
other, his  untiring  efforts  in  placing  the  army 
on  the,  comparatively  speaking,  improved 
and  high  footing  on  which  it  stood  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  ;  and  a  third,  the  con- 
struction of  the  railways  now  existing  in  the 
country.  Some  will  perhaps  reckon  among 
his  merits  the  shrewdness  he  and  his  minis- 
ters displayed  in  accomplishing  these  under- 
takings with  funds  that  were  not  exactly 
theirs. 

The  details  of  the  dethronement,  short  cap- 
tivity and  death  of  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz, though 
extremely  curious  and  interesting,  are  as  yet 
but  little  known  to  the  public.  One  of  the 
ladies  of  his  seraglio  related  some  of  the  inci- 
dents connected  with  these  events  to  me,  but 
she  said,  "  We  cannot  now  divulge  all,  for 
fear  of  prejudicing  the  living,  but  in  course 
of  time,  when  history  reveals  unknown 
facts,  all  doubts  and  mystery  on  his  untimely 
death  will  be  removed."  Upon  which  she 
burst  into  tears,  and  repeatedly  uttered  the 
Turkish  exclamation  of  distress,  "  Aman  ! 
Aman  !" 

She  then  recited  to  me  in  Arabic  the  verse 
which  the  unfortunate  Sultan,  on  entering 
his  prison,  traced  on  the  dust  that  covered 
the  table.     The  following  is  a  translation  : — 

2 


Man's  destiny  is  Allah's  will, 
Sceptres  and  power  are  His  alone, 
My  rate  is  written  on  my  brow, 
Lowly  I  bend  before  His  Throne. 

Turning  towards  the  window  the  Sultan 
noticed  that  one  of  his  much-prized  iron-clads 
had  been  placed  in  front  of  the  Yahli  which 
served  as  his  prison,  with  the  guns  pointed 
towards  him.  But  a  still  more  appalling  sight 
met  his  gaze.  A  sailor  was  seized  by  a  few 
of  his  comrades,  who,  pointing  him  out  to 
the  Sultan,  passed  a  crimson  kus/iak  or  girdle 
round  his  neck  and  led  him  three  times  round 
the  deck,  signifying  to  the  unfortunate  cap- 
tive that  in  three  days  he  would  undergo  the 
same  operation.  Pointing  this  out  to  the 
Yalide  Sultana,  he  exclaimed,  with  emotion, 
"  Mother  !  see,  to  what  use  the  force  I  have 
created  for  the  preservation  and  aggrandize- 
ment of  my  empire  is  applied  !  This  is  evi- 
dently the  death  reserved  for  me."  A  belt 
containing  some  of  the  most  valuable  crown- 
jewels,  which  the  Sultan  had  placed  on  his 
person  when  leaving  the  palace,  disappeared 
the  day  he  was  found  dead,  and  has  never 
since  been  heard  of.  The  Sultan  had  to  ask 
for  food  repeatedly  before  he  was  supplied 
with  it,  and  even  then  what  he  obtained  was 
given  him  on  the  sofra  of  a  common  soldier. 
On  my  further  questioning  this  lady  on  the 
cause  of  the  Sultan's  untimely  end,  she 
passed  her  hand  over  her  lips,  meaning  they 
were  sealed,  and  muttering  a  "  Turbe  Iain, 
fourhi,"  said,  "  It  is  not  in  my  power  to  re- 
veal more ! — the  justification  of  the  dead 
must  be  withheld  so  long  as  it  endangers  the 
living.  The  duty  of  the  devoted  is  to  keep 
silence  until  history  can  divulge  secrets  that 
will  then  harm  none." 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Abdul-Aziz,  I  had 
occasion  to  discuss  it  with  a  Turkish  general. 
Expressing  his  opinion  of  the  equally  unfor 
tunate  Sultan  Murad,  the  Pasha,  with  smil- 
ing urbanity,  said,  "  I  cannot  tell  as  yet  ;  but 
with  us,  Sultans  are  now  so  numerous,  that 
we  can  afford  to  sweep  them  away  succes- 
sively with  a  broom,  if  they  do  not  suit  us." 

Every  one  is  acquainted  with  the  quiet 
and  peaceable  manner  in  which  Sultan  Abdul- 
Aziz  was  dethroned  in  1870,  to  make  room 
for  his  nephew  Murad.  This  unfortunate 
prince  was  as  little  acquainted  with  the 
changes  that  were  being  planned  as  was  his 
uncle,  and  his  sensitive  nature,  unprepared 
for  the  shock  that  placed  him  on  the  throne, 
caused  him  to  receive  the  messenger  who 
came  to  inform  him  of  the  change  in  his  po- 
sition more  as  the  bearer  of  his  sentence  to 
death  than  the  herald  of  sovereignty.  Taken 
by  surprise  at  the  moment  he  was  about  to 
retire,  the  prince  hastily  put  on  his  coat  and 
met  the  vizir  at  the  door  of  the  Mabeyn. 
Deathly  pale,  but  calm  and  resigned,  he 
looked  in  his  face,  and  said,  "  What  is  my 
offence,  and  whom  have  I  ever  harmed  that 
I  should  thus  be  doomed  to  an  untimely 
death?" 

Entirely  ignorant  of  the  conspiracy  that 
opened  a  path  for  him  to  the  throne,  and 
severely  grieved  for  his  uncle's  misfortunes, 
the  news  of  his  tragical  end  is  said  to  have 
given  the  first  shock  to  the  young  sover- 
eign's intellect,  and,  followed  by  the  murder 
of  the  ministers,  with  its  equally  distressing 
details,  determined  the  bent  of  his  vacillat- 
ing mind.  One  of  the  first  symptoms  of  his 
insanity  was  a  habit  he  fell  into  of  spanning 
with  his  hand  the  distance  between  the  wrist 
and  elbow  joint,  striking  the  bend  of  the  arm. 
with  his  hand,  then  starting,  and  reflecting. 
I  have  never  heard  of  his  having  broken  out 
into  acts  of  violence,  except  upon  one  occa- 
sion, when  he  raised  a  stick  and  struck  his 
brother  in-law.  On  one  occasion  he  made 
his  escape  into  the  garden,  where  he  was 
found  sitting  on  a  marble  slab,  making  grim- 
aces at  those  who  approached  him.  He  is 
said  to  have  experienced  some  lucid  inter- 
vals ;  one  of  these  chanced  to  be  at  the  mo- 
ment the  salutes  were  being  tired  on  the  oc- 
casion of  his  brother  Abdul-Hamid's  ascen- 


18 


THE   PEOPLE   OP  TURKEY. 


sion  to  the  throne.  Looking  at  his  son.  n 
promising  youth  of  fourteen,  he  said,  "  My 
boy,  what  is  the  reason  of  this  firing  ?  ' 
"Oh  !"  said  the  boy,  wishing  to  spare  his 
father's  feelings,  "  it  is  the  fete  of  a  foreign 
monarch."  "  No,"  said  the  unhappy  mon- 
arch, "  it  is  the  proclamation  of  my  own  de- 
thronement, and  the  accession  of  thy  uncle 
to  the  throne  ;  God's  will  be  done  !"  Heav- 
ing a  deep  sigh,  he  shed  a  few  tears,  and, 
happily  for  him,  under  the  circumstances, 
relapsed  into  his  former  state. 

Sultan  Murad  was  said  to  possess  many  of 
the  virtues  of  his  father,  a  kind  and  gentle 
disposition,  and  intelligence  and  liberality  of 
ideas.  During  his  short  reign,  the  affability 
of  his  manners,  and  the  desire  he  showed  to 
please  all  parties,  irrespective  of  race  or  re- 
ligion, and  to  abolish  the  burdens  that 
weighed  upon  them,  had  gained  for  him  the 
respect  and  affection  of  his  subjects,  which  is 
evinced  even  to  the  present  day  by  sorrow 
and  sympathy  for  his  misfortunes. 

The  present  Sultan  at  first  declined  the  im- 
perial throne,  from  feelings  of  affection  and 
delicacy  towards  his  brother,  and  could  only 
be  prevailed  upon  to  accept  it  when  all  the 
physicians,  called  in  for  advice,  pronounced 
Murad's  case  quite  hopeless.  Sultan  Abdul- 
Hamid  is  much  esteemed  and  highly  spoken 
of  by  persons  who  have  had  the  honor  of 
conversing  with  his  Imperial  Majesty.  He 
is,  moreover,  said  to  be  qualified  for  his.po- 
sition,  being  liberal  in  his  ideas,  and  possess- 
ed of  many  of  the  qualities  of  a  jrood  sover- 
eign, and  desirous  of  carrying  out  the  re- 
forms that  alone  can  insure  the  happiness  of 
his  people  and  restore  prosperity  to  the  coun- 
try. Unfortunately,  he  came  to  the  throne 
at  a  moment  when  the  best  and  most  gifted 
of  sovereigns  could  do  little  single-handed. 
When  affairs  are  settled,  much  will  naturally 
be  expected  from  him,  which  his  friends  and 
the  well-wishers  of  Turkey  feel  confident  he 
will  realize. 

1  have  not  yet  mentioned  an  important  sec- 
tion of  the  Turkish  community — the  slaves. 
Slavery  in  Turkey  is  now  reduced  mainly  to 
one  sex.  Male  slaves,  except  in  the  capacity 
of  eunuchs,  are  now  rare,  though  every  now 
and  then  a  cargo  of  them  is  smuggled  into 
some  port  and  privately  disposed  of,  since  the 
Government  professes  to  share  the  anti-sla- 
very views  of  England.  But  female  slavery 
is  a  necessary  part  of  the  seraglio  and  of  the 
Turkish  harem  system.  The  seraglio  is  of 
course  recruited  from  its  numbers  ;  and  few 
Turks  can  afford  to  keep  more  than  one  free 
wife.  A  second  wife  insists  upon  a  separate 
establishment,  and  causes  endless  jealousy  to 
the  first  wife  and  trouble  to  the  husband. 
But  a  slave  is  no  cause  of  jealousy,  lives  in 
the  same  house  as  the  wife,  and  costs  much 
less  to  keep  than  a  free  woman.  Female 
slaves,  too,  are  generally  given  by  fathers  to 
their  sons,  to  avoid  the  expense  of  a  mar- 
riage ;  and  daughters,  on  marrying,  are  al- 
ways supplied  with  a  slave  as  lady's-maid. 
Moreover,  slaves  are  in  much  request  as  ser- 
vants, and  do  their  work  excellently,  besides 
presenting  many  advantages  and  conveni- 
ences that  are  not  found  in  free  women. 

The  condition  of  slaves  in  Turkey  is  not  a 
hard  one.  The  principle  is  of  course  radi- 
cally wrong,  and  the  initial  stage  is  full  of 
cruelty.  But  the  women  are  not  often  ill- 
treated  ;  and  when  an  occasional  case  of  vio- 
lence and  ill-usage  occurs,  it  excites  general 
indignation  among  the  Moslems.  A  slave  is 
entitled  to  her  liberty  after  seven  years  of 
bondage,  and  she  generally  gets  it,  and  is 
dowered  and  married  to  a  freeman,  though 
sometimes  a  bad  master  will  evade  the  law 
by  selling  her  before  the  seven  years  have 
quite  expired.  But  this  is  a  rare  case,  and 
the  slave  system  in  Turkey  is,  as  a  whole,  a 
widely  different  thing  from  American  sla- 
very. 

The  only  class  who  suffer  much  are  the  ne- 
gresses.  When  they  are  freed  and  married  off 
it  not  seldom  happens  that  from  their  native 


wildness  or  other  causes  they  quarrel  with 
their  husbands  and  are  turned  off  to  earn  their 
own  living  as  best  they  may.  Their  condition 
then  becomes  very  wretched,  and  the  quar- 
ter in  which  they  live  is  a  dismal  group  of 
rickety  houses,  inhabited  by  a  miserable  and 
ragged  set  of  women  and  children.  This  is 
by  no  means  the  case  with  the  Abyssinians 
or  the  half-castes,  who  rank  higher,  and 
never  have  to  appeal  to  public  charity.  But 
the  negresses  are  hardly  worse  off  than  the 
disabled  slaves.  If  a  woman  of  this  class  by 
some  accident  or  age  becomes  unfit  for  work, 
she  is  looked  upon  as  a  burden  and  very 
badly  cared  for. 

Turkish  slavery  is  not  so  bad  as  it  might 
be  :  the  system  is  softened  by  many  humane 
laws,  and  is  marked  by  a  kindly  paternal 
character.  Yet  it  is  a  blot  on  the  country, 
and  so  soon  as  the  harem  system  and  polyg- 
amy can  be  got  rid  of,  it  too  must  go. 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  ARMENIANS  AND  JEWS  IN  TURKEY. 

Historical  Misfortune*  of  the  Armenians— Refugees 
in  Turkey,  Russia,  Persia— Want  of  Patriotism— Ap- 
pearance and  Character— Armenian  Ladies— Ameri- 
can Mission  Work — Schools — The  Jews  of  Turkey — 
Reputed  Origin— Classes — Conservatives  and  Progres- 
sives—Jewish  Trade— Prejudice  against  Jews— Alli- 
ance with  Moslems — Wealth  and  Indigence — Cause  of 
the  Latter— The  Jewish  Quarter — Education—"  L1  Al- 
liance Israelite  " — Divorce  among  the  Jews  merely  a 
Question  of  the  Highest  Bidder. 

There  are  few  nations  that  can  compete 
with  the  Armenians  in  historical  misery. 
Tossed  about  between  Arsacid,  Roman,  and 
Sassiiniau  ;  fought  over  by  Persian  and  By- 
zantine ;  a  common  prey  to  Arabs,  Mongols, 
and  Turk,  it  is  a  matter  for  amazement  that 
the  nation  still  exists  at  all.  Up  to  the  four- 
teenth century  the  Armenians  held  persist- 
ently to  their  country  ;  but  after  its  subjec- 
tion by  the  Mamluk  Sultans  of  Egypt,  the 
unfortunate  inhabitants,  seeing  no  hope  of 
the  restoration  of  their  old  independence,  and 
despairing  of  relief  from  the  oppression  and 
spoiling  to  which  they  had  been  exposed  for 
centuries,  began  to  migrate  to  other  coun- 
tries, to  try  whether  fortune  would  every- 
where be  so  unkind  to  them.  Some  went  to 
Anatolia,  others  to  Egypt,  or  to  Constanti- 
nople, where  they  were  kindly  received  and 
allowed  a  Patriarch.  Some  wandered  into 
Poland,  whence  they  were  soon  driven  out  by 
the  determined  hostility  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
forced  to  take  refuge  in  Russia,  where  they 
were  joined  by  numbers  of  their  compatriots 
and  formed  a  colony  at  Grigoripol.  Others 
went  to  the  Crimea  and  Astrachan,  and  many 
of  the  Armenians  who  had  first  gone  to  Tur- 
key followed  in  their  steps.  The  Armenians 
in  Russia  were  treated  with  great  kindness 
by  Peter  the  Great  and  Catherine ,  and  were 
granted  special  rights  and  privileges.  A  col- 
ony of  Armenians  was  settled  at  New  Nak- 
hitchevan  on  the  Don.  After  more  persecu- 
tions from  the  Ottomans,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  a  large  number  of  Armenian  refu- 
gees set  out  for  Persia.  The  Shah  received 
them  graciously,  and  settled  them  in  Ispahan. 
Afterwards,  during  the  war  between  the 
Shah  and  the  Sultan,  a  depopulation  of  Ar- 
menia was  attempted,  with  the  view  of  de- 
stroying the  Turkish  power  there.  Twelve 
thousand  families  were  dragged  off  to  Per- 
sia, most  of  whom  died  on  the  way.  The 
settlers  at  Ispahan  were  at  first  treated  well, 
but  afterwards  subjected  to  such  persecution 
that  they  were  obliged  to  seek  a  home  in 
other  lands.  The  portion  of  Armenia  ceded 
by  Persia  to  Russia,  thus  acquiring  for  the 
first  time  the  necessary  conditions  of  peace 
and  safety,  became  the  refuge  of  the  Arme- 
nians who  had  not  already  left  their  native 
land,  but  who  now,  driven  beyond  endurance 
by  the  oppressive  rule  of  the  Pashas,  crossed 
the  frontier  and  immediately  found  them- 
selves possessed  of  the  ordinary  privileges  of 
Russian  subjects,  and  able  to  carry  on  com- 
mercial pursuits,  in  which  the  nation  excels, 
in  peace  and  confidence.      Thus  the  Arme- 


nian race  became  scattered  over  the  face  of 
the  earth,  whilst  only  a  remnant  still  lives  in 
the  land  of  its  ancestors.  The  Armenians 
are  to  be  met  with  all  over  the  East.  There 
are  large  numbers  of  them  at  Constantinople 
and  a  few  other  towns,  such  as  Adrianople, 
Gallipoli,  and  Rodosto.  In  the  towns  of  the 
interior,  however,  their  number  is  small. 

Ages  of  Asiatic  oppression,  varied  by  few 
glimpses  of  prosperity,  in  the  traditional  gar- 
den of  Eden,  have  obliterated  whatever  love 
the  Armenians  formerly  had  for  their  coun- 
try, which  they  willingly  deserted  to  seek  a 
home  wherever  they  could  find  one.  When 
the  first  cravings  of  their  hearts  for  peace  and 
security  had  been  satisfied,  they  settled  down 
in  communities,  forgot  their  country  and  its 
past  history,  and  assimilated  their  external 
forms  and  customs  with  those  of  the  nations 
among  whom  they  lived,  with  the  philo- 
sophic nonchalance  of  the  Asiatic.  In  Arme- 
nia, the  people  who  remain,  remembering 
the  terrible  sufferings  their  country  has  gone 
through,  have  followed  the  wise  policy  of 
burying  in  the  depths  of  their  hearts  any  sur- 
viving sparks  of  patriotism  or  love  of  liberty  ; 
though  these  hidden  sparks  may  some  day 
be  fanned  into  flame  by  the  introduction  of 
education  and  by  the  influence  Russia  is  ex- 
erting in  the  country.  So  far  the  Porte  may 
felicitate  itself  on  the  success  its  foreign  pol- 
icy has  met  with  in  Armenia.  This  policy, 
with  its  consequences  of  misery  and  suffering, 
is  safe  only  so  long  as  ignorance  and  stupid 
docility  prevail  among  the  masses  ;  this  can- 
not last  forever,  and  in  the  face  of  present 
events  it  will  not  be  surprising  to  hear  of 
troubles  breaking  out  in  that  direction  as  well 
as  everywhere  else.  It  is  only  a  question 
of  time.  In  Turkey,  political  feeling  among 
the  Armenians  is  still  in  its  infancy  ;  but 
there  must  be  thinking  men  among  the  edu- 
cated young  generation  who  are  watchful  of 
the  present  and  hopeful  for  the  future. 

The  Armenians  as  a  race  are  strong,  well 
built,  and  hardy.  With  these  constitutional 
advantages  they  readily  take  to  the  mechan- 
ical arts  ;  but  commerce  and  banking  are 
their  forte,  and  in  these  they  show  great  abil- 
ity and  as  much  honesty  as  is  possible  in  a 
country  where,  of  all  difficulties,  that  of  fol- 
lowing a  straight  line  of  conduct  is  the  great- 
est. They  are  considered  crafty,  but  at  the 
same  time  exercise  considerable  moral  influ- 
ence in  the  countries  they  inhabit,  especially 
at  Constantinople,  where  some  of  the  rich 
Armenians  have  been  very  closely  connected 
with  the  high  dignities  of  the  empire.  Their 
fancy  for  toad-eating  is  well  adapted  to 
please  the  Turks,  who  by  turns  show  them 
regard  and  contempt.  There  is  an  old  say- 
ing, that  no  Turk  can  be  happy  in  the  even- 
ing without  having  cracked  a  few  jokes  with 
an  Armenian  during  the  day. 

The  physiognomy  of  the  Armenians  is 
generally  dark.  Their  heads  are  large,  with 
black,  coarse,  and  abundant  hair.  Their 
eyes,  overshadowed  by  long  eyelashes  and 
thick  eyebrows,  meeting  over  the  nose,  are 
black  and  almond-shaped,  but  lack  the  lustre 
of  Greek  eyes.  The  nose,  the  worst  feature 
of  the  Armenian  face,  is  large  and  hooked  ; 
the  mouth  large,  with  thick  lips  ;  the  chin 
prominent.  Their  bearing  would  be  digni- 
fied but  for  a  certain  want  of  grace.  Arme- 
nians are  divided  into  two  classes  denom- 
inated Kcdun  and  InjZ,  or  coarse  and  refined. 
The  latter  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
creed,  and  are  certainly  more  advanced  than 
the  former,  who  are  far  more  subservient  to 
the  Turks,  and  keep  as  much  as  possible  in 
the  background,  devoting  themselves  to  the 
interests  of  the  Porte  in  general  and  to  their 
own  in  particular. 

In  Armenia  the  ladies  are  secluded  to  the 
extent  of  dining  and  sitting  apart  from  the 
men,  and  are  said  to  be  very  backward  in 
every  respect.  Their  costume  very  nearly 
resembles  that  formerly  worn  by  Turkish 
women.  They  display  the  same  disregard 
to  neatness  as  the  latter,  without  possessing 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


19 


their  redeeming  point  of  cleanliness  :  their 
heads  arc  specially  neglected,  and  abound  in 
live  stock  of  a  most  migratory  character.  My 
mother  once  pointed  out  one  of  these  crea- 
tures on  the  forehead  of  an  Armenian  girl,  and 
reprimanded  her  for  her  neglect  of  her  per- 
son ;  the  girl  answered  that  she  did  not  know 
that  any  human  being  could  exist  without 
them  ! 

The  Armenian  ladies  of  Constantinople  are 
renowned  for  their  beauty,  which  is  supposed 
to  lie  particularly  in  the  languid  expression  of 
their  eyes.  Both  in  Constantinople  and  Smyr- 
na there  are  many  Armenians  of  both  sexes 
who  are  well  educated,  and  scarcely  to  be 
distinguished  from  Europeans  in  society.  I 
was  once  invited  to  an  Armenian  fancy  ball, 
where  I  was  the  only  European  present. 
Everything  was  arranged  as  in  civilized  soci- 
ety, the  stewards  were  equal  to  their  duties, 
and  the  costumes  were  recherches  and  varied. 
One  slight  pretty  girl,  in  particular,  dressed 
in  the  old  Turkish  costume,  produced  a  great 
sensation,  and  was  deservingly  besieged  by 
partners,  for  she  waltzed  to  perfection. 
Many  of  the  ladies  and  gentlemen  spoke  Eng- 
lish, and  nearly  all  French,  and  I  certainly 
spent  a  very  pleasant  evening  among  them. 

In  the  privacy  of  their  homes  the  women, 
as  a  rule,  are  untidy  and  slatternly.  They 
are  exceedingly  fond  of  dress,  and,  to  the 
host  of  their  ability,  copy  the  Parisian 
fashions  ;  but  their  natural  want  of  taste  sel- 
dom fails  to  make  itself  evident  in  toilettes 
of  glaring  and  ill-assorted  colors,  while  their 
hands,  arms,  and  necks  are  overloaded  with 
jewelry.  Out  of  doors  they  are  shod  with 
boots  of  Parisian  manufacture,  on  whose 
high  heels  they  totter  along  the  badly-paved 
streets  ;  but  they  exchange  them  for  slippers 
down  at  heel  on  re-entering  their  homes. 
Even  those  who  have  lived  in  Europe,  and 
no  longer  consider  themselves  Orientals,  sit 
cross-legged  on  their  sofas  in  the  most  care- 
less costumes. 

The  Armenians  have  advanced  but  a  very 
little  way  on  the  road  of  education.  The 
most  enlightened  are  certainly  those  in  Brit- 
ish India,  whilst  those  of  them  wdio  are  Rus- 
sian subjects  have  of  late  considerably  im- 
proved. Hitherto,  the  nation  has  never  had 
a  fair  chance,  but  that  it  has  the  possibility 
of  progress  in  it  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  no 
sooner  are  the  Armenians  placed  under  a  firm 
and  wise  government  than  they  at  once  begin 
to  go  forwards,  in  every  respect.  The  prog- 
ress of  the  inhabitants  of  Russian  Armenia 
has  begun  to  work  a  political  revival  among 
their  brethren  under  Turkish  rule.  A  wish 
for  instruction  is  everywhere  heginning  to  be 
shown,  and  it  has  received  a  strong  and  most 
salutary  impulse  from  the  numerous  Ameri- 
can missionaries  now  established  through- 
out Armenia.  The  untiring  efforts  of  these 
praiseworthy  and  accomplished  workers  in 
the  cause  of  civilization  and  humanity  are 
beginning  to  bear  fruit,  especially  since  edu- 
cation has  become  one  of  their  principal  ob- 
jects. They  are  working  wonders  among 
the  uncultivated  inhabitants  of  this  hitherto 
unhappy  country,  where  mission-schools, 
founded  in  all  directions,  are  doing  the  dou- 
ble service  of^nstructing  the  people  by  their 
enlightened  moral  and  religious  teaching,  and 
of  stimulating  among  the  weathy  a  spirit  of 
rivalry,  which  leads  them  to  see  their  own 
ignorance  and  superstitious  debasement,  and 
raises  a  desire  to  do  for  themselves,  by  the 
establishment  of  Armenian  schools,  what 
American  philanthropy  has  so  nobly  begun 
to  do  for  them. 

The  moral  influence  that  America  is  now 
exercising  in  the  East  through  the  quiet  but 
dignified  and  determined  policy  of  its  Lega- 
tion at  Constantinople,  curiously  free  from 
political  intrigues  and  rivalry,  is  daily  in- 
creasing, and  has  the  most  salutary  effect  on 
the  country.  It  watches  with  a  jealous  care 
over  the  rights  and  safety  of  the  missionaries, 
who  are  loved  and  respected  wherever  they 
settle,   and  make  their  influence  felt  in  the 


remotest  corners  of  Turkey.  Next  to  Greece, 
whose  educational  efforts  are  naturally  greater 
throughout  the  country,  it  is  America  that 
will  be  entitled  to  the  gratitude  of  the  Chris- 
tians for  her  ready  aid  in  elevating  the  igno- 
rant masses  to  the  dignity  of  civilized  beings. 
In  the  Armenian  schools,  the  Turkish, 
Armenian,  and  French  languages  are  taught : 
the  two  former  are  generally  well  mastered 
by  the  pupils,  Armenians  being  considered 
apt  linguists  ;  a  very  fair  knowledge  of 
French  is  also  common  among  them, 

Armenians  do  not  show  any  taste  for  the 
arts  and  sciences.  One  seldom  hears  of  an 
Armenian  artist,  doctor,  or  lawyer,  and  the 
few  that  do  exist  attain  only  mediocrity. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  correct  statistical  in- 
formation of  native  Armenian  schools,  but  I 
can  affirm  that  of  late  years  they  have  greatly 
increased  in  number,  and  are  much  improved 
in  their  organization  and  mode  of  teaching. 
At  Constantinople,  Erzeroum,  and  many 
other  towns  where  the  Armenian  communi- 
ties are  large,  excellent  schools  for  girls  have 
been  founded.  In  towns  where  these  are 
wanting,  many  girls  are  sent  for  a  few  years 
to  the  boys'  schools,  where  religion,  reading, 
and  writing  are  taught  them.  Turkish,  the 
language  with  which  the  Armenians  are 
most  conversant,  is  also  taught  from  books 
written  in  the  Armenian  characters.  In  a 
all  other  respects,  the  education  of  Armenian 
girls  is  very  much  neglected  ;  from  an  early 
age  they  fall  into  a  listless,  aimless  existence, 
and  are  seldom  taught  to  busy  themselves 
with  needlework  or  any  useful  or  rational 
employment.  Some  of  the  wealthy  families 
at  Constantinople  and  Smyrna  are  manifest- 
ing a  desire  for  improvement  in  this  respect, 
by  engaging  European  governesses  or  send- 
ing their  children  to  European  schools  ;  but 
it  will  be  long  before  either  sex  gets  rid  of 
the  ignorance  and  indolence  which  circum- 
stances, perhaps,  as  much  as  nature,  have 
forced  upon  it. 

The  Jews  dwelling  in  Turkey  are,  to  a 
great  extent,  descendants  of  those  expelled 
from  Spain  by  the  Inquisition  and  the  edict 
of  li'J'Z  ;  their  language  is  a  corrupt  Spanish 
dialect  ;  but  they  are  conversant  with  those 
of  the  places  they  inhabit.  Besides  these  and 
other  native  Jews,  there  is  an  influential  class 
of  European  Jews  who  are  certainly  in  the 
van  of  progress  among  their  co-religionists 
in  Turkey.  They  are  educated,  liberal 
minded  men,  and,  as  a  rule,  a  prosperous 
class.  They  are  untiring  in  their  efforts  to 
develop  education  among  the  native  Jews 
by  establishing  schools,  assisting  the  poor, 
and  setting  a  good  example  of  conduct  by 
their  own  nigher  manner  of  life. 

The  native  Jews  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  Conservative  and  Progressive.  The 
Conservative  Jews  are  strict,  rigid,  and  intol- 
erant to  their  brethren  :  they  keep  aloof  from 
the  rest  of  the  world,  and  mix  with  it  only 
in  business  transactions.  They  are  cunning 
and  avaricious,  and  although  some  possess 
large  fortunes,  they  are  seldom  known  to  use 
them  for  the  benefit  of  the  community,  or 
for  any  other  good  purpose.  Strongly  op- 
posed to  liberal  education,  the  influence  they 
exercise  over  their  respective  communities  is 
always  employed  to  counteract  the  action  of 
the  enlightened  party.  The  Progressive 
Jews,  who  are  becoming  pretty  numerous 
among  the  upper  classes,  act  in  direct  oppo- 
sition to  these  principles  and  endeavor  as 
much  as  possible  to  shake  off  old  customs  and 
traditions. 

The  chief  occupations  of  the  Jewish  com- 
munity are  banking  and  commerce.  They 
excel  in  both  to  such  a  degree  that  where  a 
man  belonging  to  another  nationality  can 
only  realize  a  fair  competence,  the  Israelite 
makes  a  fortune  ;  whilst  in  positions  in  which 
other  men  would  starve,  the  Jew  will  man- 
age to  keep  himself  and  family  in  comfort. 
The  secret  of  this  well-known  fact  lies  in  the 
unusual  finesse  and  ability  displayed  by 
Israelites  occupying    high  positions   in  the 


business  world,  and  the  cunning  and  ingenu- 
ity of  the  lower  orders,  who  with  moderate 
exertion  make  the  most  of  their  trade,  and 
extort  all  they  can  from  those  with  whom 
they  have  dealings. 

With  regard  to  moral  and  personal  qualifi- 
cations, the  Jews  of  Turkey  are  the  most 
backward  and  debased  of  any  of  the  races. 
This  degenerate  condition  may  be  attributed 
to  more  than  one  cause.  One  of  the  chief 
causes,  however,  is  the  general  feeling  of 
antipathy  shown  towards  Jews  in  a  semi- 
civilized  country  :  all  kinds  of  real  and  ficti- 
tious sins  are  attributed  to  them,  from  the 
charge  of  kidnapping  children  (an  absurdity 
still  credited  everywhere  in  Turkey)  to  the 
proverbial  accusation  of  never  transacting 
business  with  members  of  other  creeds  with- 
out infringing  the  laws  of  good  faith  and 
honesty.  To  apply  this  latter  charge  to  the 
whole  community  would  be  unjust,  for  there 
are  honest,  liberal,  and  straightforward  men  ; 
but,  there  is  no  doubt  the  reputation  is  not 
altogether  ill-earned  among  them. 

The  Jews  in  Turkey  have  from  all  times 
shown  a  greater  liking  for  their  Moslem 
neighbors  than  for  the  Christians.  The 
Moslems  sneer  at  them  and  treat  them  with 
disrespect  as  a  nation,  but  are  far  more  tole- 
rant and  lenient  towards  them  than  towards 
the  Christians.  The  Jews,  on  their  side, 
although  at  heart  feeling  no  disposition  to  re- 
spect their  Mohammedan  masters,  show  great 
sympathy  outwardly  for  them  ;  and  in  case 
of  a  dispute  between  Christians  and  Moham- 
medans, unanimously  espouse  the  cause  of  the 
latter.  The  wealthy  Israelites  would  render 
every  assistance  in  their  power  to  remove  the 
difficulties  of  the  Government,  while  those 
of  humbler  standing  tender  their  service  for 
the  performance  of  anything  that  may  be 
required  of  them,  however  degrading. 

In  few  countries  is  the  contrast  of  wealth 
and1  indigence  among  the  Jews  so  striking  as 
in  Turkey.  On  one  side  may  be  seen  wealth  so 
great  as  to  command  respect  for  its  posses- 
sors, and  give  them  an  influence  in  the  locali- 
ties in  which  they  spring  up  greater  than  that 
of  all  other  nationalities  ;  whilst  hard  by  one 
sees  poverty  and  wretchedness  of  the  most 
sickening  nature.  The  principal  cause  of 
this  is  the  limited  sphere  of  action  allotted 
to,  or  rather  adopted  by,  the  Jewish  commu- 
nities. They  evince  a  strong  repugnance 
to  going  beyond  the  few  trades  generally 
practised  by  the  laboring  classes  ;  the  rest 
content  themselves  with  performing  the 
coarsest  and  dirtiest  work  of  the  town. 
From  generation  to  generation  the  Jews  will 
cling  to  these  callings  without  allowing  them- 
selves to  be  tempted  beyond  them,  or  raising 
themselves  in  the  social  scale  by  taking  to 
agricultural  or  other  pursuits  that  might  in- 
sure them  a  comfortable  home  and  an  honor- 
able living. 

In  towns  where  the  Jewish  element  pre 
dominates,  it  is  packed  in  dingy,  crowded 
quarters,  in  hovels,  buried  in  tilth.  These 
miserable  abodes  contrast  strongly  with  the 
fine  and  showy  houses  of  the  rich.  Both  rich 
and  poor  of  the  native  Jews  may  be  seen  in 
their  courtyards  or  at  their  doors,  the  mother 
rocking  the  cradle,  the  children  playing  in 
the  mud,  and  the  women  and  girls  washing 
or  engaged  in  other  household  occupations. 
The  men  on  coming  home  don  their  neglige 
in-door  costume  and  join  the  family  party, 
lounging  on  a  sofa,  smoking  and  chatting. 
This  community  is  very  noisy,  the  most  nat- 
ural conversation  among  them  being  carried 
on  in  the  loud  tones  ol  lively  dispute,  all  talk- 
ing at  once  in  such  an  elevated  key  as  to  be 
heard  at  a  considerable  distance. 

They  are  certainly  lively  and  cheerful, 
neither  want  nor  poverty  detaining  them  at 
recreation-time  from  listening  to  their  dis- 
cordant national  music,  which  they  accom- 
pany by  a  vocal  performance  of  a  deafening 
nature. 

Some  of  the  women  are  very  pretty,  and 
their  beauty  is  heightened  by 'their  peculiar 


20 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


costume  and  gay  head-dress.  They  are,  how- 
ever, cold  and  rather  graceless  in  demeanor, 
and  are  not  noted  for  intelligence. 

Education  among  the  native  Jews  was  com- 
pletely neglected  until  very  recently,  when 
Ihe  efforts  of  the  European  Jews  and  a  few 
of  the  liberal  natives  finally  produced  a  ben- 
eficial reaction,  and  schools  of  a  superior  or- 
der, principally  dependencies  of  "  L'Alliance 
Israelite"  formed  in  Europe  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Eastern  Jews,  have  been  established  in 
all  the  principal  towns,  and  are  said  to  have 
greatly  benefited  the  rising  generation,  which 
is  wanting  neither  in  intelligence  nor  apti- 
tude for  study.  Before  the  establishment  of 
these  schools  the  Jews  had  to  send  their  chil- 
dren to  European  or  Greek  schools,  where 
they  received  an  indifferent  style  of  educa- 
tion, as  the  training,  owing  to  the  difference 
of  religion  and  habits,  did  not  include  the 
complete  course. 

The  director  of  the  schools  established  by 
"L'Alliance  Israelite"  gave  me  most  satis- 
factory accounts  of  the  progress  made  by  the 
pupils  attending  them,  and  of  the  increase  of 
morality  among  them.  The  Jewish  girls 
have  not  equal  advantages  with  the  boys  with 
respect  to  educational  establishments.  This 
unfortunate  difference  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  in 
time  remedied  by  the  schools,  founded  by  the 
same  society  and  others,  in  the  principal 
towns.  All  these  schools  owe  their  origin  to 
the  generosity  of  wealtlry  Israelites  like 
Baron  Hirsh  and  others,  who  have  endowed 
the  establishments  with  the  funds  necessary 
for  rendering  them  useful  and  of  lasting  du- 
ration. In  Salonika  the  girls'  school,  estab- 
lished some  years  ago,  has,  thanks  to  the  able 
management  and  munificence  of  the  Messrs. 
Allatini,  been  placed  upon  an  excellent  foot- 
ing, and,  being  presided  over  by  the  most  in- 
telligent and  gifted  European  ladies  of  the 
community,  is  doing  great  and  good  service. 

Besides  these  schools,  there  is  one  of  older 
standing  connected  with  the  Missionary  So- 
ciety, under  the  direction  of  a  missionary  and 
three  able  and  devoted  Scottish  ladies,  who 
receive  a  large  class  of  day  pupils  and  give 
them  the  benefit  of  sound  education  for  a 
trifling  fee.  This  part  of  missionary  work  is 
in  reality  the  best  and  most  beneficial  to  the 
community,  and  far  more  so  than  the  efforts 
made  at  proselytism — efforts  which,  so  far 
as  I  can  ascertain,  have  nowhere  met  with 
success. 

Polygamy  is  prohibited  among  the  Jews  ; 
but  their  divorce  laws  are  very  lenient ;  and 
a  separation  is  the  easiest  thing  in  the  world 
— for  the  husband,  A  wife  cannot  get  a 
separation  without  her  husband's  consent. 
Practically,  however,  this  is  seldom  refused 
if  a  sum  of  money  is  offered.  A  gentleman, 
aware  of  this  Jewish  weakness,  and  falling  in 
love  with  a  Syrian  beauty  who  was  married 
to  a  Jew,  bought  her  divorce  for  2,000/.  In 
some  towns  the  morality  of  the  community 
is  closely  watched.  In  Adrianople,  for  in- 
stance, a  faithless  wife  is  led  for  three  suc- 
cessive days  round  the  Jewish  quarter,  and 
compelled  to  stop  before  every  door  to  be 
spat  upon  and  abused.  At  Salonika,  where 
the  Jews  are  very  numerous,  it  is  quite  other- 
wise. Among  the  wealthy  and  liberal  many 
of  the  old  customs  have  been  set  aside,  in- 
termarriage with  European  Jewish  families 
is  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  many  modifi- 
cations permitted  which  do  not  seem  strictly 
conformed  to  the  Mosaic  law. 

The  affairs  of  the  Jewish  communities,  like 
those  of  the  Christians,  are  managed  by 
elders.  The  chief  Rabbi  has  control  over 
all  matters  regarding  the  religious  and  social 
interests,  and  is  in  direct  communication 
with  his  superior  at  Constantinople 

CHAPTER  VI. 

TIIE   CIRCASSIANS,    TATARS,    AND  GYPSIES    OF 
TURKEY. 

The  Circassians.— Then  Immigration  into  Turkey 
in  1864— Their  Camp — Chiefs  and  Slaves— Origin  of 
the  Charge  of  Cannibalism — Assistance  of  the  Govern- 
ment and  the   Peasantry— Bulgarian  Views  of   the 


New-comers— A  Cherkess  Girl— Sale  of  Circassian  Wo- 
men—Depredations—Cattle-lifting — Circassian  Fellow- 
travellers  in  a  Steamer — Appearance  and  Character — 
Scheme  of  Philanthropy  respectfully  offered  to  Russia. 

The  Tatars.— Their  Arrival  in  the  Dobrudcha  with 
a  Good  Character,  which  they  have  since  maintained 
— Their  Excellent  Qualities  as  Artisans— Religion — 
Women— Dirtiness— Tallow  their  Specialty— Rivalry 
of  Jewish  and  Tatar  Hawkers. 

The  Gypsies. — Legend  of  the  Origin  of  the  Name 
Chenguin— Abhorrence  of  them  by  the  Turks — Re- 
ligion and  Superstitious  Customs — Nomad  Life — Two 
Classes— Physical  Characteristics — Reported  Witches 
—Indiscriminate  Pilfering  —  A  Case  of  Horse-stealing — 
Gypsy  Cunning  in  the  Market— Gypsy  Avocations- 
Character— Gypsy  Soldiers— Town  Gypsies— Agricul- 
tural Gypsies. 

In  1864  Russia,  the  present  champion  of 
the  subject  races  of  Turkey,  was  busy  in  her 
own  vast  dominions  giving  the  coup  de  grace 
to  the  unruly  and  only  half -subjugated  Cir- 
cassians. These  people,  during  a  period  of 
eighty  years,  resisted  Russian  aggression,  de- 
fending their  homes  and  liberties  at  the  point 
of  the  sword,  until  the  consequences  of  war, 
famine,  and  misery  compelled  them  to  yield 
to  the  superior  power  of  the  Czar.  They 
were  offered  the  choice  of  migrating  to  the 
lower  steppes  of  that  land,  where  Russian 
discipline  alone  could  tame  them,  of  of  quit- 
ting the  country.  Some  accepted  the  former 
alternative,  while  a  large  portion,  consisting 
of  about  300,000  souls,  preferred  to  accept  the 
hospitality  of  Turkey.  Before  leaving  the 
shores  of  their  beloved  native  land,  collected 
on  the  beach  like  a  herd  of  wild  animals 
caught  in  a  storm,  they  raised  their  voices 
and  cried  aloud  against  the  injustice  and 
cruelty  they,  with  their  wives  and  children, 
had  received  at  the  hands  of  the  Muscovites. 
That  voice  reached  Turkey,  who,  whatever 
her  sins  are,  has  never  been  known  to  refuse 
shelter  and  assistance  to  the  homeless  and 
the  refugee.  A  proof  of  this  may  be  found 
in  the  harbor  offered  within  my  recollection 
to  the  exiled  Prince  of  Persia,  Kouli  Mir/.a, 
subsequently  a  pensioner  of  Great  Britain  ; 
the  famous  Syrian  chieftain,  the  Emir  Beshir 
and  his  party  ;  the  Polish,  Wallachian,  and 
Hungarian  refugees,  and  Abdul  Kadir  ;  the 
Algerine  captive  chief,  who  obtained  permis 
sion  from  Napoleon  to  reside  in  Turkey.  All 
these  with  their  followers  were  received  with 
hospitality,  treated  with  kindness,  and,  in 
some  cases,  allowed  pensions  while  they  re- 
mained in  the  country. 

This  gift  of  Russia  to  Turkey  was,  as  far 
as  the  female  portion  of  it  was  concerned,  as 
irresistible  as  the  beauteous  Pandora  is  said  to 
have  been  to  Epimetheus  ;  and  the  Circassian 
ladies  certainly  brought  with  them  the  equiva- 
lent for  Pandora's  famous  box,  in  the  shape 
of  their  kith  and  kin, who  dispersed  themselves 
all  over  the  country,  and,  from  that  moment, 
have  never  ceased  to  do  mischief,  and  justify 
Russia's  treatment  of  them.  I  have  had  op- 
portunities of  seeing  these  people  since  their 
arrival  in  Turkey,  of  watching  them  in  the 
different  stages  through  which  they  have 
passed,  and  noting  the  irreparable  harm  they 
have  done  to  the  country  that  offered  them 
an  asylum.  On  landing,  about  2000  were 
quartered  in  a  little  wood.  Emaciated  by 
the  long  sufferings  of  the  journey,  covered 
with  vermin,  and  half  famished,  they  en- 
camped on  the  damp  soil  in  the  early  spring, 
some  sheltering  themselves  under  the  trees, 
others  under  such  tattered  tents  as  they  pos- 
sessed, all  closely  packed  together,  the  sick 
lying  face  to  face  with  the  dead,  and  the  liv- 
ing moving,  gaunt  and  ghostlike,  among 
them,  careless  of  everything  except  getting 
money.  As  we  neared  the  infected  camp, 
bands  of  men  and  women  came  forward, 
holding  their  children  by  the  hand  and  offer- 
ing to  sell  them  to  any  who  would  buy.  The 
little  wretches  themselves  seemed  anxious  to 
be  separated  from  their  unnatural  parents,  in 
the  hope  of  getting  food  and  better  shelter. 
These  Circassians  were  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  chieftains  and  the  slaves.  Each 
regarded  the  other  with  distrust  ;  the  one  ex 
peering  from  his  slave  the  abject  obedience 
he  had  been  accustomed  to  receive  in  his  na- 
tive land  ;  the  other,  aware  of  the  change  in 


his  condition,  ready  to  dispute  this  right  with 
his  former  master. 

Rations  and  clothes  were  distributed  by  the 
Turkish  authorities,  but  the  master  took  his 
slave's  portion  and  sold  it  for  profit.  The 
slave,  on  his  side,  stole  what  he  could,  and 
stripped  even  the  dead  of  his  last  covering, 
leaving  the  corpse  to  be  devoured  by  dogs. 
The  sight  of  these  bodies  by  the  townspeople 
and  others  originated  the  idea  that  these 
people  were  cannibals,  and  this  reputation 
preceding  the  Circassians,  on  their  march 
further  into  the  country,  caused  a  panic  on 
their  route.  Children  ran  away  on  their  ap- 
proach, and  even  the  peasants  themselves,  in- 
stinctively aware  of  the  pernicious  nature  of 
the  element  introduced  among  them,  did  their 
best  to  avoid  giving  them  offence  in  refusing 
assistance. 

The  majority  of  the  Circassians  distributed 
in  European  Turkey  are  settled  in  the  Dobrud- 
cha ;  the  rest  were  allotted  patches  of  ground 
in  all  parts  of  Bulgaria  and  in  other  prov- 
inces, where  the  peasants  were  called  upon  to 
supplement  the  Government  in  providing 
them  with  cattle,  grain,  and  all  other  requi- 
sites necessary  to  start  them  as  settlers.  The 
Bulgarian  peasants  stoically  made  it  a  point 
of  duty  to  render  every  assistance  in  their 
power  to  the  destitute  and  helpless  creatures 
so  strangely  brought  among  them,  and  Cir- 
cassian settlements  soon  started  up  like  weeds 
by  the  side  of  the  peaceful  and  thriving  vil- 
lages. 

Four  years  later  I  had  again  occasion  to 
pass  through  these  settlements,  and  was 
much  surprised  at  the  transformation  in  the 
appearance  of  the  Circassians.  The  men, 
dressed  in  their  picturesque  costume,  wear- 
ing their  arms,  some  of  which  were  curious 
and  rich  pieces  of  Eastern  workmanship, 
were  lazily  lounging  about  the  commons  of 
their  villages  ;  while  the  women,  arrayed  in 
their  dress  of  red  silk  braided  with  gold,  pre- 
sided over  their  household  duties  Some 
well-conditioned  cattle,  driven  by  Circassian 
youths,  were  grazing  in  the  surrounding 
meadows.  I  stopped  at  a  Bulgarian  village 
opposite  one  of  these  settlements.  It  was  a 
praunik,  or  feast-day,  and  the  Bulgarian  youth 
and  beauty,  dressed  in  their  best,  were  danc- 
ing the  liora.  As  our  party  approached,  the 
dance  stopped,  and  the  women,  saluting  me 
with  a  cheerful  smile,  regarded  me  with  great 
curiosity.  The  headman  of  the  village  came 
forward,  and,  with  a  hearty  welcome,  offered 
me  hospitality  for  the  night.  I  had  a  long 
and  interesting  conversation  with  him  and 
the  elders  of  the  little  community  upon  the 
Circassian  settlements.  The  Bulgarian  peas- 
ants even  at  that  early  date  had  a  long  list  of 
grievances  against  their  new  neighbors. 
Pointing  to  the  opposite  village,  they  assured 
me  that  its  very  foundation  and  prosperity 
was  due  to  Bulgarian  labor  and  money. 
"The  Circassians,"  said  they,  "lounge 
about  the  whole  day,  as  you  see  them  doing 
now.  Their  industry  does  not  extend  beyond 
the  sowing  of  a  few  bushels  of  millet  for  the 
use  of  their  families  Their  cattle,  as  well  as 
most  of  their  belongings,  are  not  for  work, 
but  are  stolen  property  that  they  tire  freely 
allowed  to  appropriate  to  themselves  to  the 
prejudice  of  the  peasants."  TheWpoor  men 
seeined  much  concerned  at  this  new  evil  that 
had  befallen  them.  "We  never  get  redress 
for  the  wrongs  done  by  our  neighbors,"  said 
they;  "and  if  the  Government  functiona- 
ries continue  to  disregard  our  complaints,  and 
to  allow  the  depredations  of  these  marauders 
to  go  unpunished  as  they  have  hitherto  done, 
not  only  our  property  but  our  lives  will  be  at 
their  mercy." 

A  Circassian  girl  from  the  village  on  seeing 
me  came  forward,  and  with  tears  in  her 
eyes  implored  me  to  take  her  with  me  and 
keep  her  in  my  service.  She  was  about 
eighteen  years  of  age,  a  beautiful  creature, 
dark  coniplexioned,  with  sparkling  eyes, 
which  overflowed  when  I  refused  her  request. 
"  I  am  perishing  with  ennui  here,"  she  said. 


THE   PEOPLE   OP   TURKEY. 


21 


"  in  this  dreadful  outlandish  place,  without  a 
hope  or  chance  of  getting  away  by  being 
sold  or  rescued  by  some  charitable  person 
who  might  take  me  to  Stamboul  !"  Sur- 
prised at  her  statement,  I  asked  why  she  did 
not  do  as  others  of  her  nation,  and  insist  up- 
on being  sold.  With  a  look  of  hopeless  de- 
spondency she  replied  :  "  None  now  dares  to 
buy  the  uherkesa  girls  belonging  to  the  emi- 
grants." She  would  give  me  no  further  in- 
formation, but  through  subsequent  inquiry  I 
learnt  that  the  Turkish  Government,  among 
the  laws  it  had  made  relating  to  the  Circas- 
sians, had  deprived  them  of  the  right  of  sell- 
ing their  children  as  they  formerly  did  in 
their  native  country,  and  had  also  decreed 
the  liberation  of  the  slaves  held  by  them.  But 
this  law,  like  many  others,  was  disregarded, 
and  the  chieftains  continued  to  treat  their 
subjects  as  slaves,  a  cause  of  constant  quar- 
relling and  bloodshed  among  them.  Some 
broke  out  into  open  rebellion  and  refused  to 
obey  their  master  as  such,  while  the  chiefs, 
strong  in  the  close  alliance  that  existed  among 
them,  could  at  all  times,  notwithstanding 
the  interference  of  the  authorities,  bring 
their  subjects  to  terms  by  taking  the  law  into 
their  own  hands. 

With  regard  to  selling  their  children,  it  was 
neither  the  law  prohibiting  the  practice  nor 
the  want  of  purchasers  that  put  a  stop  to  it, 
but  the  abuse  made  of  it  by  the  Circassians 
themselves.  For  instance,  two  brothers 
would  agree  to  sell  a  sister  to  some  Moham- 
medan, who,  after  having  paid  the  money 
and  obtained  possession  of  the  girl,  was  sud 
denly  called  before  the  local  courts  to  answer 
the  charge  brought  by  her  father,  without 
whose  consent  it  was  pretended  the  daughter 
had  been  ravished  and  illegally  sold.  The 
purchaser  thus  losing  his  prize  without  re- 
ceiving back  the  money  he  had  paid  to  the 
dishonest  Circassians,  and  being  condemned 
for  the  proceeding  by  the  law,  made  known 
the  undesirability  of  such  purchases  among 
his  friends,  and  deprived  them  of  any  wish 
to  participate  in  such  troublesome  business. 

The  depredations  of  the  Circassians  became 
so  extensive  that  from  one  farm  alone  in  the 
district  of  Adrianople  three  hundred  and  fifty 
head  of  cattle  were  stolen  and  never  re- 
covered 

A  systematic  company  of  cattle-stealers 
was  established  all  over  Bulgaria  ;  the  stolen 
animals  taken  from  the  villages  found  their 
way  to  Rodosto  and  Gallipoli,  where  they 
were  shipped  to  Asia  Minor  and  exchanged 
with  stolen  cattle  from  that  coast.  The  dex- 
terity with  which  a  Circassian,  introducing 
himself  into  a  stud,  takes  possession  of  the 
best  horse  is  the  terror  and  wonder  of  the 
farmer.  He  usi.s  a  kind  of  lasso  which,  cast 
over  the  head  of  the  animal,  enables  him  to 
mount  it  and  stick  to  it  as  if  horse  and  rider 
were  one.  The  wildest  animal  is  soon  cowed 
under  the  iron  sway  of  the  rider,  and  disap- 
pears, to  be  seen  no  more. 

A  gentleman,  wishing  to  procure  a  good 
horse  from  a  Circassian,  asked  the  owner  if 
the  animal  was  a  gooVl  trotter.  The  Circas- 
sian, with  a  malicious  smile,  answered,  "  Sir, 
he  will  take  you  to  the  world's  end,  so  long 
as  you  are  careful  not  to  turn  his  head  in  the 
direction  of  Philippopolis,  but  in  that  case  I 
do  not  guarantee  him  !" 

Another  incident,  illustrative  of  the  thiev- 
ish propensities  of  these  people,  was  related 
to  me  of  a  carter  who,  driving  his  wagon 
from  town,  fell  asleep  in  it,  and  was  met  by  a 
band  of  Circassians,  who  thought  the  prize 
too  tempting  to  be  allowed  to  escape.  Some 
of  the  party,  therefore,  took  to  unharnessing 
the  oxen,  and  two  of  them,  taking  the  place 
of  the  captured  animals,  kept  the  cart  going 
while  the  others  went  off  with  the  oxen. 
When  these  wen-  at  a  fair  distance,  their 
substitutes  gave  the  cart  a  strong  jerk  to 
arouse  the  poor  unsuspecting  driver,  and 
heartily  saluting  him,  disappeared  across 
country. 

So  long  as  Circassian  marauding  was  limit- 


ed to  incidents  of  this  nature  the  peasants 
put  up  with  it,  and  in  many  cases  abstained 
even  from  complaining  to  the  authorities  ; 
but  gradually  the  proceedings  of  this  danger- 
ous race  assumed  a  character  the  gravity  of 
which  only  escaped  public  notice  because  of 
the  general  disorganization  that  followed. 

Becoming  prosperous  and  wealthy  through 
their  continual  depredations  and  robberies, 
the  youthful  portion  of  the  community  that 
had  escaped  sickness  on  first  landing  formed 
a  lawless  hostile  faction  in  the  land,  having 
as  little  respect  for  the  authority  of  the  Porte 
as  for  the  life  and  property  of  the  natives. 
When  the  Government  tried  some  years  ago 
to  bring  a  portion  of  them  under  military 
discipline,  they  rebelled  and  gave  much 
trouble  to  the  authorities  in  the  capital  itself, 
where  it  was  found  necessary  to  seize,  exile, 
and  otherwise  punish  some  of  the  chiefs  for 
insubordination. 

I  happened  to  bo  travelling  in  a  Turkish 
steamer  with  thirty  of  these  rebellious  sub- 
jects. Their  chief  was  said  to  have  been  an 
influential  person,  holding  the  rank  of  aide- 
de-camp  to  a  member  of  the  Imperial  family, 
perhaps  the  famous  Cherkess  Hasan,  who 
nearly  two  years  ago  murdered  the  Ministers. 
The  Turkish  officer  who  had  charge  of  these 
troublesome  prisoners  told  me  that  for  two 
months  he  and  his  men  had  given  chase  to 
this  band,  who  had  escaped  into  Asia  Minor, 
where  they  bad  continued  their  depredations, 
and  were  only  secured  at  last  by  being  sur- 
rounded in  a  forest.  They  appeared  a  dread- 
ful set  of  cut-throats — not  at  all  pleasant  fel- 
low-passengers— and  their  guards  had  to  keep 
good  watch  over  them.  This  officer  further 
stated  that  the  Sultan,  out  of  kindness,  had 
invited  them  into  his  dominions,  giving  them 
land,  and  every  opportunity  of  settling  down 
and  becoming  useful  members  of  society  ; 
but  it  was  a  sad  mistake,  for  they  would 
neither  work  nor  yield  to  discipline,  neither 
would  they  make  any  efforts  to  requite  the 
Government  for  the  benefit  they  had  received, 
but  in  every  instance  proved  their  reputation 
for  lawlessness  and  depredation.  It  is  an 
important  fact  that  before  the  Bulgarian 
troubles  the  peasants  of  the  districts  when' 
the  Circassians  were  in  force  dared  no  longer 
circulate  except  in  companies  of  fifty  or  six- 
ty, and  that  murderous  attacks  liad  become 
every-day  occurrences. 

Although  protected  in  some  high  quarters 
in  consequence  of  their  close  connection 
through  family  ties,  the  Circassians  are  gen- 
erally disliked  and  distrusted,  especially  by 
the  people,  who  have  no  such  strong  reasons 
for  protecting  them.  In  physical  features 
they  often  present  splendid  specimens  of  the 
famed  Circassian  type,  though  not  unfre- 
quently  bearing  a  great  resemblance  to  the 
Mongolian  In  manner  they  are  haughty  and 
even  insulting,  with  an  air  of  disdain  and 
braggadocio  such  as  no  really  brave  man  as- 
sumes. In  character  the  Cherkess  is  un- 
doubtedly cowardly,  cruel,  and  false.  Edu- 
cation he  has  none,  so  that  all  the  evil  pas- 
sions of  his  nature,  unchecked  by  any  notion 
of  moral,  religious,  or  civil  obligation,  have 
developed  themselves  with  irresistible  force, 
and  prompted  him  to  acts  that  during  the  last 
two  years  have  placed  the  name  of  the  Circas- 
sian below  that  of  the  gypsy. 

It  is  said  that  they  arc  to  be  expelled  from 
European  Turkey.  If  this  is  the  case,  the 
unfortunate  population  of  Asia  Minor,  both 
Mohammedan  and  Christian,  among  whom 
they  will  be  quartered,  are  most  deeply  to  be 
pitied,  as  well  as  the  Government,  whose 
duty  it  will  be  to  re-establish  and  discipline 
these  ruffians  now  rendered  desperate  and 
doubly  hardened  by  the  crimes  and  horrors 
of  every  description  into  which  they  have 
lately  plunged  with  impunity. 

The  best  and  wisest  plan  would  be  to  re- 
quest Russia,  if  she  really  and  earnestly  de- 
sires the  welfare  of  the  Christians  in  Turkey, 
to  take  the  Circassians  back  and  reinstate 
them  in  their  native  land.     Should  this  be 


impracticable,  the  Turkish  Government 
would  do  well  to  send  them  to  colonize  some 
of  the  fertile  but  waste  lands  in  the  heart  of 
Asia  Minor,  in  the  vicinity  of  half-savage 
tribes  like  themselves,  in  whom  they  might 
find  their  match,  and  cease  to  become  a  per- 
petual source  of  trouble  and  injury  both  to 
the  Government  and  its  peaceful  subjects. 

The  migration  of  the  Tatars  into  Turkey 
preceded  that  of  the  Circassians  by  half  a 
century.  When  their  country  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Russia,  the  Tatars,  unwilling  to 
remain  under  her  dominion,  removed,  at  a 
great  sacrifice  of  life  and  property,  into  Bes- 
sarabia, where,  scarcely  had  they  begun  to 
feel  settled  and  to  forget  their  wrongs  and 
sufferings,  than  the  Muscovite  eagle  again 
clouded  the  horizon,  and  the  emigrants,  flut- 
tering at  its  approach  like  a  flock  of  fright- 
ened birds,  collected  their  families  and  be- 
longings, and  took  to  flight.  Weary  and 
exhausted,  they  alighted  on  the  Ottoman 
soil,  and  settled  in  the  Dobrudcha.  They 
were  a  quiet  and  industrious  people,  and  be- 
fore long,  through  toil  and  exertion,  they 
made  themselves  homes,  and  peopled  the 
Dobrudcha  with  their  increasing  numbers. 
Some  of  the  Tatar  princes  migrated  with 
their  subjects,  and  took  up  their  abode  in 
the  vicinity  of  Zaghra,  where  they  retained 
their  title  of  Sultardar,  or  "the  princes." 
They  became  in  time  wealthy  landowners, 
but,  unlike  their  less  exalted  brethren,  they 
were  hard,  unjust,  and  oppressive  masters  to 
the  Bulgarian  peasants,  and  by  their  cruel 
treatment  of  these  people  were  among  the 
causes  of  their  being  cited  as  rebels  before 
the  authorities. 

A  second  emigration  of  Tatars  took  place 
after  the  Crimean  War,  when  these  unfortu- 
nate people,  in  a  similar  plight  to  the  Circas- 
sians, came  to  join  their  kinsmen  in  the 
Dobrudcha  and  other  parts  of  European  Tur- 
key. They  were  poor,  and  for  the  most  part 
destitute  of  every  requisite  of  life.  The 
Turkish  Government  did  its  best  to  help  them 
by  giving  grants  of  land,  etc.,  but  those  who 
settled  as  agriculturists  were  unfortunate,  for 
a  series  of  bad  seasons  crashed  their  first 
efforts,  and,  unassisted  by  further  relief,  they 
remained  in  a  stationary  condition  of  pov- 
erty, notwithstanding  many  praiseworthy 
efforts  to  better  their  condition.  Those  who 
settled  in  towns  fared  better  ;  all  who  were 
acquainted  with  some  handicraft  at  once  set 
to  work  and  executed  their  different  branches 
of  industry  with  so  much  activity,  neatness, 
and  honesty  that  they  soon  reached  prosper- 
ity and  comfort. 

Their  religion  is  Mohammedan,  but  they 
are  by  no  means  strict  or  fanatical.  Their 
women  do  not  cover  their  faces  when  among 
their  own  community,  but  when  abroad 
veiled  like  the  Turkish  women.  They  are 
very  thrifty  in  their  habits,  and  some  are 
pretty  and  sweet-looking,  but  as  a  rule  they 
are  the  dirtiest  subjects  in  the  Sultan's  do- 
minions. Their  uncleanliness  with  regard  to 
dress,  dwellings,  and  food  is  so  great  as  to 
shock  and  horrify  the  Turks,  who  certainly 
have  that  virtue  which  is  said  to  come  next 
to  godliness. 

The  principal  ingredient  in  their  cookery 
seems  to  be  tallow  ;  as  candle-makers  they 
are  greatly  superior  to  the  natives,  and  the 
preference  given  to  this  article  of  their  man- 
ufacture has  induced  them  to  take  the  prin- 
cipal portion  of  this  branch  of  industry  into 
their  hands. 

When  a  colony  settled  in  the  town  of 
A ,  one  of  my  friends  took  a  great  inter- 
est in  the  efforts  made  by  these  estimable 
artisans  to  earn  a  livelihood  as  shoe-makers, 
tailors,  tallow-chandlers,  etc.  Some  opened 
small  shops  for  the  sale  of  different  articles, 
while  those  who  had  no  distinct  calling  or 
possessed  no  capital  became  wood-cutters,  or 
hawkers  of  vegetables,  fruits,  etc.  In  this 
business,  however,  they  met  with  shrewd 
and  knowing  professionals — the  Jews,  who 


— — 


22 

were  far  more  able  and  practised  hands  at  it, 
and  at  first  gave  very  little  chance  to  the 
poor  Tatars.  It  became  a  race  between  Jew 
and  Tatar  who  should  get  up  earliest  in  the 
morning  and  go  furthest  to  meet  the  peasants 
bringing  their  produce  to  market.  In  this 
the  Tatar  was  most  successful,  as  he  was  the 
better  walker  of  the  two,  and  less  afraid  than 
the  Jew  of  venturing  some  distance  from  the 
town  ;  but  the  latter  contented  himself  with 
the  reflection  that  there  are  many  roads  that 
lead  to  the  same  goal,  and  many  ways  of 
making  profit  which  are  not  dreamt  of  in 
Tatar  philosophy. 

The  Gypsies  in  Turkey,  numbering  about 
200,000  souls,  profess  outwardly  Moham- 
medanism, but  keep  so  few  of  its  tenets  that 
the  true  believers,  holding  them  in  execra- 
tion, deny  their  right  to  worship  in  the 
mosques  or  bury  their  dead  in  the  same  cem- 
etery. Although  not  persecuted,  the  antipa- 
thy and  disdain  felt  for  them  evinces  itself 
in  many  ways,  and  appears  to  be  founded 
upon  a  strange  legend  current  in  the  country. 
This  legend  says  that  when  the  gypsy  nation 
were  driven  out  of  their  country  and  arrived 
at  Mekran,  they  constructed  a  wonderful 
machine,  to  which  a  wheel  was  attached. 
Nobody  appeared  able  to  turn  this  wheel  till, 
in  the  midst  of  their  vain  efforts,  some  evil 
spirit  presented  himself  under  the  disguise  of 
a  sage  and  informed  the  chief  (whose  name 
was  Chen)  that  the  -wheel  would  be  made  to 
turn  only  when  he  had  married  his  sister 
Guin.  The  chief  accepted  the  advice,  the 
wheel  turned  round,  and  the  name  of  the 
tribe  after  this  incident  became  that  of  the 
combined  names  of  the  brother  and  sister, 
Clienguin,  the  appellation  of  all  the  gypsies  of 
Turkey  at  the  present  day. 

This  unnatural  marriage,  coming  to  the 
knowledge  of  one  of  the  Moslem  saints,  was 
forthwith,  together  with  the  whole  tribe, 
soundly  cursed  ;  they  were  placed  beyond 
the  pale  of  mankind,  and  sent  out  of  the 
country  under  the  following  malediction  : 
"  May  you  never  more  enter  or  belong  to  the 
seventy-seven  and  a  half  races  that  people 
the  earth,  but  as  outcasts  be  scattered  to  the 
four  corners  of  the  earth,  homeless,  wretch 
cd,  and  poor  ;  ever  wandering  and  toiling, 
never  realizing  wealth,  enjoying  the  fruits  of 
your  labor,  or  acquiring  the  esteem  of  man- 
kind!"* 

I  have  related  this  legend  because  it  repre- 
sents in  a  very  striking  manner  the  condition 
of  the  gypsies  of  Turkey  as  well  as  the  belief 
placed  in  it  by  people  of  all  creeds,  who  not 
only  put  them  beyond  the  pale  of  human- 
kind, but  also  deny  to  them  what  would  be 
granted  to  animals — their  alms.  Last  year 
during  the  Ramazan,  a  popular  Hodja, 
preaching  on  charity  to  a  large  congregation 
of  Mohammedans,  thus  addressed  them — "  O 
true  believers,  open  your  purses  every  one  of 
you,  and  give  largely  to  the  poor  and  needy  ! 
Refuse  not  charity  either  to  Mohammedans  or 
Christians,  for  they  are  separated  from  us 
only  by  the  thickness  of  the  skin  of  an  onion, 
but  give  none  to  the  Chenguins,  lest  part  of 
the  curse  that  rests  upon  their  heads  should 
fall  upon  yours  !" 

Mohammedanism  and  the  Christian  rites 
also  practised  by  a  few  of  the  gypsies  can 
only  be  a  mask  to  hide  the  heathen  supersti- 
tion handed  down  among  them  from  genera- 
tion to  generation,  together  with  their  native 
language,  and  some  other  observances,  such 
as  keeping  a  fire  continually  burning  in  their 
camp.  On  the  first  of  May  all  go  in  a  body 
to  the  sea-coast  orthe  banks  of  ariver,  where 
they  throw  water  three  times  on  their  tem- 
ples, invoking  the  invisible  genii  loci  to  grant 
their  special  wishes. 

Another  custom,  observed  with  equal  con- 

*  Turkish  ethnology  divides  the  human  race  into 
seventy-seven  and  a  half  nations,  the  Jews  represent- 
ing the  half,  and  the  gypsies  being  entirely  excluded. 
This  is  clearly  an  improvement  upon  Mohammed's 
estimate  of  the  number  of  different  sects  in  Islam,  etc. 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 

stancy,  is  that  of  annually  drinking  some  po- 
tion, the  secret  of  whose  preparation  is 
known  only  to  the  oldest  and  wisest  of  the 
tribe.  This  draught  is  partaken  of  by  the 
whole  community  as  a  charm  or  preventive 
against  snake-bites.  It  is  certain  that,  owing 
to  some  agency,  the  gypsies  can  catch  snakes 
and  handle  them  with  the  greatest  impunity, 
but  are  never  known  to  kill  or  hurt  these 
animals. 

The  habits  of  these  people  are  essentially 
nomadic.  Sultan  Mured  IV.  tried  to  check 
their  roving  disposition  by  ordering  that  they 
should  be  permanently  settled  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Balkans,  and  obliged  to  live  a  regular 
life  ;  but  disregarding  the  imperial  decree, 
they  dispersed  all  over  the  country,  now 
pitching  their  tents  in  one  place  and  now  in 
another,  like  evil  spirits  bent  on  mischief,  or 
birds  of  prey  ready  to  pounce  upon  any  game 
that  offers  itself.  Their  pilfering  propensi- 
ties are  entirely  directed  to  supplying  the 
common  wants  of  nature  ;  they  never  grow 
rich  on  their  plunder. 

The  tribe  is  divided  into  two  classes — 
those  who  live  in  the  towns  for  short  peri- 
ods, and  those,  the  wildest  and  vilest,  who 
wander  about  all  the  year  round  ;  during  the 
summer  pitching  their  tents  in  the  open 
country  or  on  the  roadside,  men,  women, 
and  children  all  huddled  together  under  the 
tattered  rags  that  form  their  only  shelter. 
The  men  and  women  are  miserably  clad,  and 
the  children  walk  about  in  their  original 
nakedness.  The  Chenguins  are  muscular, 
thin,  and  of  middle  size  ;  with  dark  skins, 
bright  sparkling  eyes,  low  undeveloped 
brows,  and  well  defined  nose,  wide  at  the 
nostril  ;  the  lower  part  of  the  face  is  ill- 
formed  and  sensual.  When  quite  young, 
some  of  the  women  are  very  pretty  and  much 
appreciated  by  the  Turkish  community  as 
dancing  girls,  in  which  calling  their  utter 
want  of  decency  and  morality  makes  them 
adepts.  When  the  gypsy  woman  is  advanced 
in  years  she  becomes  perfectly  hideous  ;  her 
brown  skin  shrivels  up  through  priva- 
tion and  exposure,  her  body  gets  thin  and 
emaciated,  and  her  uncombed  elf  locks,  half 
concealing  her  features,  give  her  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  witch.  The  cunning  creature, 
aware  of  the  effect  she  produces,  makes  cap- 
ital out  of  it,  by  impressing  the  credulous 
with  a  belief  in  her  uncanny  powers  of  pre 
dieting  the  future,  casting  or  removing  the 
evil  eye,  or  other  magic  spells,  invoking  ben- 
efits or  bringing  evil  upon  those  who  refuse 
charity  or  provoke  her  anger  ;  thus  extorting 
from  fear  the  alms  that  pity  refused. 

In  winter  they  quarter  themselves  in  the 
vicinity  of  towns  or  villages,  where  they 
have  a  better  chance  of  carrying  on  their 
trade  of  petty  thieving.  The  nuisance  they 
become  to  a  neighborhood  is  increased  by 
the  hopelessness  of  obtaining  any  recovery  of 
property  stolen  by  them.  The  gypsy  is  by 
no  means  particular  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
object  he  covets,  but  will  condescendingly 
possess  himself  of  an  old  horse  found  con 
veniently  in  his  neighborhood,  or  venture 
further  and  lay  hands  on  anything  from  a 
useful  article  of  dress  to  a  stray  ox. 

The  following  incidents  that  came  under 
my  personal  observation  were  attributed  to 
an  encampment  of  gypsies  in  the  vicinity  of 

the  town  of  M ,  and  will  give  an  idea 

how  these  people,  called  by  the  peasants 
Taoukjis,  set  about  business,  and  the  precau- 
tions they  take  to  avoid  detection  and  escape 
punishment. 

In  our  stable  were  three  fine  and  valuable 
horses,  much  admired  in  the  town,  which 
had  evidently  awakened  the  cupidity  of  some 
gypsies  encamped  opposite  the  house  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river.  On  one  occasion, 
when  the  two  best  were  away  from  home  to- 
gether with  the  groom,  the  third  horse  dis- 
appeared during  the  night.  In  the  morning 
I  sent  to  give  notice  of  the  occurrence  to  the 
sub-governor  and  request  his  aid  in  discover- 
ing the  thief  or  thieves.     This  functionary, 


I  a  kind  and  civil  man,  at  once  called  upon  me 
and  gave  me  the  assurance  that  the  horse 
would  be  recovered,  as  none  but  the  gypsies 
encamped  opposite  could  have  stolen  it.  The 
police  were  sent  to  the  camp  to  request  about 
a  dozen  to  come  to  the  Konak  to  answer  for 
the  robbery. 

On  arriving,  the  gypsies  were  placed  under 
close  examination  by  the  Kaimakam  and 
Medjliss  ;  they  naturally  denied  all  knowl- 
edge of  the  robbery  and  protested  against  the 
accusation.  Finding  them  obstinate,  the 
Kaimakam  ordered  them  to  be  placed  under 
the  pressure  of  the  whip,  but  this  appearing 
to  produce  no  effect,  made  the  governor  sus- 
pect that  some  trick  had  been  resorted  to,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  culprits  feeling  the 
smart  of  the  punishment  they  had  anticipat- 
ed. They  were  ordered  to  undress,  upon 
which,  looking  very  crestfallen,  they  began 
to  pray  for  mercy,  but  their  prayers  were 
soon  drowned  in  the  sounds  of  general  hilar- 
ity that  followed  the  discovery  of  the  suc- 
cessive layers  of  sheepskin  in  which  they  had 
taken  the  precaution  of  enveloping  their 
bodies.  The  first  few  blows  that  fell  upon  their 
now  unprotected  backs,  drew  forth  screams 
of  "  Aman,  Effendi  !"  followed  by  sundry 
revelations  on  the  disappearance  of  the  horse. 
"  Last  night,"  said  one,  "  it  came  quite  un- 
expectedly into  our  camp  ;  we  tried  to  secure 
it  but  it  escaped  again,  we  will  endeavor  to 
find  and  bring  it  back,  but,  oh,  Aman  !  Ef- 
fendi !  beat  us  no  more  !  we  will  pay  the  value 
of  the  horse  for  the  honor  of  the  Chenguin 
tribe  I"  When  these  proceedings  came  to 
my  knowledge,  I  begged  the  Kaimakam  not 
to  be  too  hard  on  the  poor  rogues,  but  set 
them  free  after  the  severe  punishment  they 
had  received.  I  may  add  that  the  horse  was 
never  found. 

On  the  shapeless,  ill-paved,  mud  pooled 
space  which  usually  occupies  the  centre  of 
small  Turkish  towns,  the  peasants  collect 
from  all  parts  of  the  surrounding  country 
with  their  carts  and  beasts  of  burden,  laden 
with  goods  for  sale  or  barter.  On  one  occa- 
sion an  industrious  Bulgarian  cloth-weaver 
took  up  his  habitual  post  at  the  corner  of  a 
narrow  street,  v>  here  he  exhibited  his  stock 
of  goods  and  invited  purchasers.  Shortly 
afterwards,  a  ragged,  thievish-looking  Chen- 
guin, with  a  couple  of  sieves  of  his  own 
manufacture,  came  and  seated  himself  oppo- 
site, apparently  with  the  object  of  selling  his 
stock  in  trade.  No  customer  appeared,  and 
the  gypsy  began  to  show  signs  of  weariness 
and  sleepiness  ;  he  yawned  desperately, 
stretched  his  limbs,  looked  at  his  neighbor, 
yawned  again  and  again,  until  he  succeeded 
in  infecting  him  with  a  sympathetic  drowsi- 
ness. Gradually  passing  into  the  second 
stage  of  somnolence,  he  closed  his  eyes  and 
nodded.  The  Bulgarian,  following  his  exam- 
ple, was  soon  fast  asleep,  and  the  gypsy, 
quickly  springing  to  his  feet,  seized  a  fine 
piece  of  sfiayak,  and  walked  away  with  it. 
The  Bulgarian  unsuspectingly  slept  on  until 
roused  by  his  head  coming  in  contact  with 
the  wall,  against  which  he  was  leaning  ;  his 
bewildered  gaze  instinctively  turned  to  the 
spot  which  the  other  slumberer  had  occu- 
pied, and,  finding  that  it  was  empty,  he 
looked  at  his  merchandise  and  discovered 
that  his  best  piece  of  cloth  had  disappeared 
also.  Much  troubled,  he  packed  up  the  rest 
of  his  goods,  and  proceeded  to  the  house  of 
the  Chorbadji,  who  advised  him  to  find  the 
gypsy,  and  point  him  out  to  the  police,  who 
might  succeed  in  recovering  his  property. 
To  this  he  responded,  "  All  the  gypsies  have 
the  same  wild,  tattered,  and  cunning  appear- 
ance, and  follow  the  trade  of  taoukjis  j  if  I 
call  the  attention  of  the  police  to  my  case,  I  . 
shall  be  made  responsible  for  the  imprison- 
ment of  the  whole  band,  and  incur  expenses 
greater  than  the  value  of  my  cloth.  I  must 
therefore  forego  it ;  but  never  again  shall  this 
stupid  '  Bulgarski  glava '  be  outdone  by 
gypsy  cunning  I" 

The  other  callings  followed  by  the  Chen- 


THE  PEOPLE   OP  TURKEY. 


23 


guins  are  those  of  tinkers,  blacksmiths,  lead- 
ers of  bears  and  monkeys,  and  musicians  of 
a  primitive  kind.  The  women  keep  up  the 
Nautch  dance  of  the  East  witli  an  excruciat- 
ing kind  of  accompaniment,  consisting  of  a 
drum,  bagpipe,  tambourine,  and  pipe,  with 
which  they  make  the  round  of  the  towns  and 
villages  on  feast  (lays,  when  they  are  hired 
by  the  people,  and  dance  and  shout  to  their 
hearts'  content. 

The  gypsies  are  idle,  false,  and  treacherous. 
They  have  none  of  the  manly  virtues  ;  and 
on  account  of  their  known  cowardice,  they 
were  never  pressed  into  military  service  by 
the  Turks  until  last  year,  when  a  certain 
number  of  those  settled  in  towns  and  vil- 
lages were  sent  off  as  recruits.  It  was  a  pic- 
ture worth  seeing,  when  a  band  of  these  wild 

creatures  was  embarked  at  the  town  of  S . 

Guarded  by  a  detachment  of  soldiers  headed 
by  a  drum  and  clarionet,  and  followed  by  the 
whole  tribe  of  old  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren, screaming,  crying,  and  dragging  their 
rags  after  them,  these  doubtful  warriors 
marched  through  the  town.  I  asked  an  old 
crone  how  it  was  that  the  Chenguins  had  to 
go  to  war.  "  God  knows,"  was  her  reply  ; 
"  it  is  the  Sultan's  command  and  must  be 
obeyed. ' ' 

The  hatred  shown  by  the  Turks  to  the  in- 
vaders of  their  country  was  so  great,  and  their 
patriotism  and  bravery  in  defending  her  so 
conspicuous,  that  even  this  degenerate  race 
became  infected  with  a  certain  degree  of  the 
same  devotion,  and  evinced  a  desire  to  go  and 
fight  for  Allah  and  the  Sultan,  although  at  the 
last  moment  their  natural  cowardice  proved 
too  strong  for  them.  Some  mutilated  their 
hands,  others  feigned  sickness  or  insanity  as 
an  excuse  for  remaining  behind,  whilst  those 
who  actually  reached  the  seat  of  war  gave 
great  trouble  to  their  officers,  did  no  service 
whatever,  and  deserted  whenever  a  chance 
presented  itself. 

The  class  of  gypsies  living  in  towns  is 
slightly  better  and  more  respectable  as  a 
community.  They  generally  occupy  hovels 
built  round  a  court,  in  which  they  take  shel- 
ter during  the  night ;  but  during  the  day,  in 
winter  or  summer,  they  live  out  of  doors.  A 
great  part  of  their  time  is  spent  lounging 
about  the  court,  hammering  at  their  forges, 
smoking  or  quarrelling,  while  the  girls  list- 
lessly parade  the  streets,  and  the  children 
beg  or  fall  into  any  mischief  that  presents  it- 
self. They  are  never  sent  to  school,  and  I 
do  not  think  there  is  a  single  person  of  either 
sex  who  is  able  to  write  a  word  of  any  lan- 
guage. 

The  gypsies  settled  in  the  villages  take  to 
field  work  as  far  as  their  rovmg  habits 
and  thievish  propensities  allow  them.  These 
are  either  chiftjis,  who  work  regularly,  or 
ailikjis,  who  do  odd  jobs.  They  present 
a  strong  contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  rural 
population  in  their  thriftlessness  and  want 
of  care  for  the  morrow.  They  are  so  care- 
less of  health  that  an  aged  gypsy  is  rarely 
met  with.  As  laborers  they  are  very  unsatis- 
factory, and  require  much  supervision  from 
their  employers.  No  gypsy  ever  becomes 
wealthy  or  respectable  ;  as  a  class  they  are 
always  in  debt. 

The  whole  tribe  is  a  curious  mixture  of  the 
human  and  the  animal  :  it  is  endowed  with 
the  scent  of  the  dog,  the  cunning  of  the  mon- 
key, and  the  form  and  vices,  but  none  of  the 
virtues  apparently,  of  mankind. 

CHAPTER  Vn. 

TENURE  OP  LAND. 
Three  Classes  of  Lands  in  Turkey—  Vakouf  Lands, 
their  Origin  and  Growth— Turkish  Equivalentof  Mort- 
main—Privileges of  Tenants  on  Fatotf/Land— Malad- 
ministration—Corruption  of  Charity  Agents  and  Gov- 
ernment Inspectors— General  System  of  Embezzle- 
ment—Sultan Mahmoud's  Attempted  Reform— Insuffi- 
ciency of  ratow/ Revenues  as  administered;  Supple- 
mented by  State— General  Decay  of  Yakouf  Property, 
Mosques,  Medresses,  and  Imarets— Misapplication  of 
Vakouf  Funds  intended  for  the  Support  of  the  Public 
Water-supply— Mirie  Lands,  Government  Grants, 
Military  Proprietors,  Growth  of  a  Feudal  System- 
Miserable  Condition  of  the  Rayahs— Anxiety  of  the 


Porte— Destruction  of  the  Fendal  System  by  Mah- 
moud  and  Abdul-Medjid— Reduction  of  the  Bosnian 
and  Albanian  Beys — Present  Condition  of  the  Country 
Beys — Mirie1  Lands  reclaimed  from  the  Waste — Title- 
Inspectors— A  Waste-Land  Abuse— Similar  Difficulties 
in  Connection  with  Ordinary  Mirie  Tenure—  Mulk  or 
Freehold  Lands— Their  Small  Extent— Difficulty  of 
Establishing  Safe  Titles— Descent  and  Transfer  of 
Land — Tenure  of  Land  by  Christians  and  by  Foreign 
Subjects— Commons  and  Forests — The  Inspectors  of 
the  Forest  Department. 

Regarded  from  a  conveyancer's  point  of 
view,  land  in  Turkey  is  of  three  kinds  :  mev- 
koufe  (or  vakouf),  "  church"  property;  mirie, 
crown  property  ;  and  mulk  or  memlouke,  free- 
hold. 

1.  Vakouf  lands  are  those  set  aside  for  the 
support  of  the  religious  establishments,  the 
mosques,  medresses  (or  mosque-colleges)  and 
other  religious  schools,  and  the  imarets,  or  in- 
stitutionsfor  public  almsgiving.  The  appro- 
priation of  a  just  part  of  a  man's  wealth  for 
purposes  of  religion  and  charity  is  one  of  the 
most  constantly  reiterated  principles  of  Islam, 
and,  to  the  credit  of  Moslems  be  it  said,  it  is 
a  principle  very  regularly  reduced  to  prac- 
tice. It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  on 
the  conquest  of  European  Turkey  a  large 
share  of  land  was  set  apart  "  for  God. "  But 
this  original  grant  was  not  the  only  source  of 
the  present  large  extent  of  vakouf  lands. 
Private  munificence  has  constantly  added  to 
the  original  foundation.  The  piety  of  some 
Moslems  and  the  vain-glory  of  others  has 
ever  been  displayed  in  the  erection  and  en- 
dowment of  mosques,  with  their  attendant 
medresses  and  imarets.  In  the  one  case  it  was 
a  sure  key  to  heaven  ;  in  the  other,  it  was 
the  best  way  to  get  the  praises  of  men  of 
one's  own  generation  and  the  admiration  of 
posterity.  Formerly  ordinary  people  used 
frequently  to  indulge  in  this  architectural 
luxury  ;  but,  during  the  present  century, 
only  Sultans  and  Grand  Vizirs  have  found 
the  practice  convenient. 

Besides  the  original  grant  and  the  private 
additions  which  each  century  contributed,  va- 
kouf lands  have  been  greatly  increased  from 
a  third  source.  The  people  of  Turkey  seem 
to  have  duly  appreciated  those  privileges 
against  which  our  own  mortmain  laws  were 
directed.  The  parallel  is  not  indeed  strictly 
accurate,  but  there  are  strong  points  of  re- 
semblance. A  Moslem  (or,  for  that  matter,  a 
Christian)  sells  his  land  to  a  mosque  for 
about  one-tenth  of  its  real  value.  The  land 
is  now  the  property  of  the  mosque,  but  the 
seller  has  the  right  of  lease,  and  may  retain 
his  tenancy  on  payment  of  a  fixed  rent.  Dur- 
ing his  life  he  may  sell  the  lease,  or  at  his 
death  it  passes  on  to  his  heirs  ;  but  in  default 
of  direct  descendants  the  lease  reverts  abso- 
lutely to  the  mosque.*  By  this  transaction 
both  parties  are  the  gainers,  and  only  the 
Government  and  its  corrupt  officials  the 
losers. 

The  mosque  receives  a  large  interest  for  a 
comparatively  trifling  expenditure  of  capi- 
tal ;  and  has  besides  the  reversion  in  the 
event  of  default  of  heirs.  The  tenant,  though 
he  has  to  pay  a  rent  where  formerly  he  paid 
none,  is  not  burdened  by  this  slight  charge, 
and  sets  against  it  the  immense  privileges  he 
has  acquired  ;  for,  as  a  tenant  on  vakouf  land 
—that  is,  holding  direct  of  Allah— he  pays 
no  taxes  ;  he  is  safe  from  confiscation  by 
the  Government,  extortion  from  its  officials, 
and  persecution  from  private  creditors.  It 
is  the  most  profitable  and  secure  tenure  to  be 
met  with  in  Turkey,  and  it  is  a  matter  of 
congratulation  that  the  mosque  authorities 
place  so  high  a  value  upon  money  that  they 
are  willing  to  accept  it  even  from  dogs  of 
Christians  who  wish  to  avail  themselves  of 
the  protection  afforded  by  vakouf  leasehold. 

No  official  report  of  the  extent  of  the  va- 
kouf lands  has,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  been 
published  ;  but  it  is  easy  to  understand  that 
their  extent  and  value  must  be  very  great.  It 
is  even  estimated  at  two-thirds  of  the  whole 


*  In  August,  1875,  the  law  of  inheritance  on  vakouf 
lands  was  modified  and  improved. 


land  of  Turkey.  It  is  therefore  remarkable 
that  the  revenues  derived  from  them  do  not 
nearly  suffice  for  the  purposes  for  which  they 
were  intended.  The  expense  of  maintaining 
the  services  of  the  mosques  and  of  keeping 
up  the  extremely  economical  system  of  relig- 
ious education  would  not  seem  to  be  i 
sive,  though  the  charitable  imarets  would  of 
course  require  considerable  support.  But 
these  are  not  the  real  reasons  why  these  rich 
revenues  are  not  sufficient.  One  reason  is, 
that  they  are  expected  to  maintain  a  large 
class  of  Ulema,  whose  numbers  are  altogether 
disproportionate  to  the  educational  results 
they  produce.  The  other  and  far  more  dis- 
astrous cause  is  that  the  revenues  are  cor- 
ruptly administered. 

At  first  the  management  of  the  funds  lay 
in  the  hands  of  agents  appointed  by  the  pious 
founders.  When  an  agent  died,  his  success- 
or was  named  by  the  Roumeli  Kadisi  (or 
Anadoli  Kadisi  if  in  Asiatic  Turkey).  The 
agents  were  under  the  supervision  of  inspec- 
tors, whose  business  it  was  to  verify  tho 
mosque  accounts.  These  inspectorships 
were  generally  given  to  high  functionaries  of 
the  Porte,  and  so  lucrative  were  they  that 
they  excited  keen  competition  (in  the  Turkish 
sense),  and  eventually  came  to  be  regarded 
as  the  fixed  appendages  of  certain  offices.  It 
may  easily  be  imagined  that  between  the 
agents  and  the  inspectors  there  was  not  much 
of  the  vakouf  revenues  left  for  the  right  pur- 
poses. As  a  matter  of  fact,  most"  of  the 
money  found  its  way  into  the  pockets  of  the 
inspectors  of  the  Sublime  Porte. 

Among  the  many  schemes  that  engaged 
the  attention  of  the  Reformer- Sultan  Mah- 
moud  there  was  of  course  a  place  for  vakouf 
reform.  He  wished  to  amalgamate  the  va- 
kouf lands  with  the  mirie  or  crown  lands, 
but  had  not  the  boldness  necessary  to  tho 
carrying  out  of  so  revolutionary  a  measure. 
He  contented  himself  with  clearing  away 
some  of  the  more  obvious  abuses  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  vakoufs,  and  appointed  a  di- 
rector, with  the  rank  of  Minister,  to  see  to  the 
proper  management  of  the  property.  Still, 
however,  the  revenues  did  not  prove  suffi- 
cient. The  annual  budget  of  vakouf  returns 
reached  a  total  of  20,000,000  piastres  ;  yet  in 
1803  it  had  to  be  supplemented  hy  another 
20,000,000  piastres  from  the  Treasury,  and  is 
ever  in  need  of  similar  assistance.  The 
funds  are  still  misapplied  ;  and,  as  the  result, 
the  mosques  and  medresses  have  fallen  more 
and  more  into  ruin  and  decay  ;  the  imarets 
are  become  instruments  of  a  merely  nominal 
almsgiving  ;  and  every  charitable  or  relig- 
ious intention  of  the  pious  founders  is  daily 
trodden  under  foot. 

Among  the  minor  objects  of  vakouf  en- 
dowments are  the  construction  and  mainte- 
nance in  repair  of  aqueducts  and  road  foun- 
tains. I  have  often  witnessed  with  regret 
the  manner  in  which  the  trust  is  abused  by 
its  holders.  In  most  towns  the  principal 
water  supply  is  endowed  hy  vakoufs,  the 
revenues  of  which  were  intended  to  defray 
all  expenses  connected  with  keeping  the 
channels  and  fountains  in  repair.  In  three 
cases  out  of  four  these  funds  are  misapplied. 
At  Salonika,  for  instance,  the  water  supply 
is  richly  endowed,  and  the  town  ought  clear- 
ly to  be  well  furnished  with  water.  Instead 
of  this,  a  great  number  of  the  fountains  are 
dried  up,  and  a  serious  waste  of  water  is 
caused  by  .the  neglect  of  the  water-pipes.  It 
is  painful  to  see  the  crowd  of  miserable  Jew- 
ish children  waiting  for  hours  round  the 
dribbling  fountain  under  a  burning  summer 
sun,  or  pierced  with  the  biting  winter  winds, 
till  they  get  a  chance  of  filling  their  pitchers 
— too  often  only  to  get  them  broken  in  the 
battle  that  immediately  ensues.  In  summer, 
when  the  want  of  water  is  most  severely  felt, 
many  people  do  not  scruple  to  dig  down 
to  the  water  pipes  in  some  deserted  street, 
stop  the  current  that  leads  to  the  foun- 
tain, and  thus  obtain  the  supply  they 
need.     In  former  times  fountains  were  erect- 


24 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


ed  on  all  the  main  roads  and  in  every 
town  and  village  ;  but  most  of  them  are 
now  dried  up  or  fallen  to  ruin.  Some  of 
those  that  remain  are  of  solid  marble,  with  a 
carved  frontage  inscribed  with  the  name  of 
the  donor,  the  date  of  erection,  and  some 
verses  from  the  Koran.  Some  are  in  the 
form  of  basins,  with  jets  playing  in  them, 
sheltered  sometimes  by  little  kiosks,  and  al- 
ways shaded  by  fine  old  trees.  The  thirsty 
traveller  and  his  beast  are  all  the  more  grate- 
ful when  they  do  find  a  fountain  with  water 
running,  because  the  chances  are  so  over- 
whelmingly against  such  good  luck — thanks 
to  the  vakouf  administrators,  who  from  this 
point  of  view  deserve  credit  for  intensifying 
the  virtue  of  gratitude. 

2.  The  Mine,  or  crown-lands,  include  the 
private  demesnes  of  the  Sultan  and  the  royal 
family,  the  lauds  reserved  for  the  partial  sup- 
port of  the  administration,  the  waste  lands, 
together  with  an  enormous  extent  of  laud 
originally  granted  on  condition  of  military 
service  to  the  most  zealous  supporters  of  the 
Sultan,  with  a  view  to  retaining  their  fidelity 
and  assuring  the  supremacy  of  the  Govern- 
ment over  the  native  princes.  The  country 
was  thus  given  over  to  the  power  and  license 
of  an  army  of  occupation.  It  was  divided 
into  sandjaks  governed  by  Pashas,  Beys, 
and  Beglerbeys.  Those  last-named  were  the 
administrators  of  the  sandjaks.  Their  duty 
it  was  to  collect  the  taxes  and  furnish  the 
contingents  of  troops  to  the  Imperial  army. 
The  favored  officers  of  the  Porte  received  im- 
mense grants  of  land  in  return  for  their  zeal  ; 
the}'  were  exempt  from  taxation,  and  only 
required  to  find  soldiers  for  the  ware  of  the 
Porte.  Excluding  vakouf  lands,  the  greater 
part  of  Turkey  was  thus  placed  on  a  sort  of 
feudal  tenure,  the  proprietor  holding  of  the 
crown  by  military  service.  All  the  evil 
effects  of  the  system  soon  developed  them- 
selves. 

The  lands  of  these  military  proprietors 
were  of  course  chiefly  tilled  by  the  rayahs, 
who  had  formerly  held  them  in  freehold. 
Although  these  underholdiugs  were  sup- 
posed, like  all  mirie  lands,  to  be  registered, 
and  thus  to  enjoy  the  advantage  of  a  legally 
fixed  rent,  they  were  yet  subject  to  the  end- 
less extortions  invariably  associated  with  the 
notion  of  Turkish  officials.  Especially  heav- 
ily did  this  system  press  upon  the  Christian 
tenants  of  the  military  land-owners.  In 
principle  the  conduct  of  the  Turks  to  their 
Christian  subjects  was  not  greatly  blam- 
able  ;  it  was  in  practice,  as  usual,  that  the 
grievances  arose.  The  Christian  communi- 
ties were  managed  by  their  Kodja-Bashi,  or 
headman,  who  had  to  collect  the  tribute,  pro- 
portioning it  to  the  means  of  each  individ 
ual ;  and  to  gather  the  kharadj,  or  poll-tax, 
and  other  impositions.  A  community  was 
allowed  to  compound  for  each  or  all  its  taxes 
by  a  fixed  sum.  Thus  far  all  appears  sur- 
prisingly satisfactory.  But  when  the  actual 
condition  of  the  Christian  tenants  is  looked 
into,  a  very  different  impression  is  produced. 
Their  landlords  were  ever  devising  some  new 
extortion  ;  the  taxes  were  levied  with  ruin- 
ous irregularity  ;  fresh  impositions  were  con- 
stantly being  added  ;  and,  in  fine,  their  state 
became  so  intolerable  that  large  numbers  of 
them  deserted  their  faith  (of  which  they  are 
generally  highly  tenacious  in  spite  of  igno- 
rauce  and  persecution),  and  became  Moslems, 
and  were  at  once  placed  in  possession  of  the 
privileges  of  the  dominant  race.  A  curious 
instance  of  this  conversion  by  necessity  was 
that  of  the  Krichovalis,  a  lawless  race  of 
mountaineers  about  Vodena.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century  they  found  them- 
selves unable  longer  to  endure  the  disabilities 
of  their  condition.  They  met  in  solemn  as- 
sembly in  their  old  church  on  a  great  feast- 
day,  and  swore  the  sacred  oath  upon  the 
Bible  that  they  became  Mohammedans  under 
protest,  being  compelled  to  abandon  their 
faith  in  order  to  escape  the  intolerable  tram- 
mels of  their  bondage.     The  Bible  on  which 


they  swore,  containing  the  signatures  of  the 
chief  men,  still  exists,  I  am  told,  in  the  keep- 
ing of  the  Greek  priest. 

The  evils  of  military  tenure  bore  upon  the 
Porte  as  well  as  upon  the  rayahs.  The  Sul- 
tans were  not  slow  to  note  with  alarm  the 
growing  power  of  the  great  feudatories. 
They  endeavored  to  curtail  their  privileges 
and  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  rayahs 
and  attach  this  class  to  themselves.  But  for 
a  long  time  the  efforts  of  the  central  govern- 
ment were  unavailing.  The  military  land- 
owners made  common  cause  with  the  Begler- 
beys, who  had  by  degrees  acquired  the  su- 
preme control  of  their  sandjaks  ;  and  these 
two  united  in  defying  the  authority  of  the 
sovereign.  A  great  landed  aristocracy  had 
grown  up,  like  the  baronage  of  England  in 
Angevin  times,  and  threatened  the  very  ex- 
tinction of  the  supremacy  of  the  Porte  over 
its  subjects.  A  great  blow  must  be  struck  at 
the  country  Beys  ;  and  Mahmoud  II.  resolved 
to  strike.  He  wras  completely  successful,  and 
left  to  his  successor  Abdul-Medjid  only  the 
task  of  bringing  some  of  the  rebellious  chief- 
tains to  punishment.  Some  were  beheaded, 
other  banished,  and  all  had  their  property 
confiscated.  Inoffensive  tenants  by  military 
service  received  compensation  ;  but  the  sys- 
tem was  rooted  out,  and  has  now  ceased  to 
exist. 

How  the  great  feudal  landowners  were 
crushed  will  be  understood  from  a  few  exam- 
ples. A  short  time  ago  1  made  the  acquaint 
ance  of  one  of  the  dervish  sheikhs  who  fol- 
lowed Ali  Pasha  when  he  was  dispatched  by 
Abdul-Medjid  to  reduce  the  Bosnian  rebels.  I 
asked  how  the  reduction  was  effected  ;  and 
this  was  his  account :  Ali  Pasha,  with  a 
small  but  well-organized  army  of  Nizams,  on 
approaching  the  country,  asked  permission 
of  the  Bosnians  to  cross  into  the  Austrian 
territory.  The  Bosnians  unsuspectingly 
granted  leave,  and  we  marched  into  the 
country  and  pitched  our  camp  in  its  very 
heart.  After  a  few  days  the  Pasha  produced 
the  Irade  of  the  Sultan,  containing  a  demand 
for  60,000  recruits  from  the  Bosnians.  They 
refused  to  furnish  them,  and  began  to  assem- 
ble and  arm.  The  Pasha  did  not  insist  upon  j 
the  enforcement  of  the  Imperial  order,  but 
opened  negotiations.  He  was  a  wily  man  and 
knew  his  business.  He  managed  with  soft 
words  and  fair  promises  to  entice  all  the 
Bosnian  grandees  into  the  camp,  Under  the 
pretext  of  holding  a  general  council.  Hav- 
ing thus  collected  all  the  influential  persons 
of  the  country,  he  put  them  under  arrest  and 
proceeded  to  try  them.  Some  were  behead- 
ed, and  Ali  Pasha  with  his  own  hand  struck 
down  the  leading  chief.  The  rest  after  some 
further  parley  were  brought  to  terms,  and 
were  then  exiled  and  their  goods  confiscated. 
The  60,000  recruits  were  soon  raised,  and 
the  general  marched  triumphantly  back  to 
Constantinople  at  their  head. 

The  Albanian  chieftains  were  dealt  with  in 
the  same  way  :  when  forced  failed,  treachery 
prevailed.  Their  two  leaders,  Veli-bey  and 
Arslan-bey,  were  enticed  by  a  friendly  invi- 
tation to  Monastir,  where  they  were  received 
with  every  mark  of  consideration  and  kind- 
ness. A  few  days  afterwards  they  and  their 
friends  were  invited  to  a  great  feast  by  Reshid 
Mehemet  Pasha.  This  was  tc  take  place  in  a 
kiosk  outside  the  town  near  the  head-quarters 
of  the  regular  troops. 

On  the  appointed  day  Veli-bey  and  Arslan- 
bey  proceeded  to  the  rendezvous  accompanied 
by  nearly  all  their  beys  and  retinue ',  in  all 
about  400  men.  The  kiosk  was  hidden  from 
view  by  a  turn  in  the  road  till  they  had  al- 
most reached  it,  and  it  was  only  on  entering 
the  space  in'  front  that  they  perceived  the 
troops  ranged  in  order  of  battle.  A  suspicion 
crossed  the  mind  of  Arslan-bey,  who  said  to 
his  companion  in  Eastern  phrase,  "  We  have 
eaten  dirt  I"  Veli-bey  replied,  "It  is  the 
regular  way  of  paying  honor."  "At  all 
events,"  said  Arslan-bey,  with  doubtful 
friendship,    "let    us    change  sides."    This 


was  done,  and  Arslan-bey  found  himself 
screened  from  view  by  the  imposing  figure 
of  Veli-bey  and  his  horse.  They  had 
reached  the  centre  of  the  line,  when  an  order 
issued  from  the  window  of  the  kiosk,  the 
soldiers  raised  their  pieces,  and  a  murderous 
fire  was  opened  on  the  ranks  of  the  Alban- 
ians, followed  by  a  bayonet  charge.  Veli- 
bey  and  his  horse  fell  pierced  with  nineteen 
balls,  but  Arslan-bey  was  unhurt.  Followed 
by  those  who  had  escaped  the  first  discharge, 
he  turned  his  horse  and  took  to  flight  ;  but  a 
second  fire  reached  their  flank.  Arslan-bey 
again  miraculously  escaped,  and  owing  to 
the  speed  of  his  horse  soon  left  the  place  of 
carnage  at  a  distance.  But  his  flight  had 
been  observed  from  the  kiosk  from  which 
the  Grand  Vizir  had  directed  the  massacre, 
and  he  was  pursued  ;  but  putting  spurs  to 
his  horse,  he  urged  it  up  the  precipitous  side 
of  the  hill,  making  for  the  summit  with  furi- 
ous speed.  The  top  was  almost  reached 
when  a  shower  of  balls  brought  down  man 
and  horse  ;  and  they  rolled  down  the  steep 
hillside  to  join  the  Dodies  of  their  fellow-vic- 
tims below.  Such  were  the  last  fatal  blows 
aimed  at  the  expiring  feudal  system  ;  exile 
and  confiscation  did  the  rest. 

The  once  powerful  Beys,  when  thoroughly 
crushed  and  impoverished,  were  allowed  a 
small  income,  and  after  many  years  of  ex- 
patriation were  finally  permitted  to  return  to 
their  native  districts.  Their  power  is  com- 
pletely gone,  although  their  personal  influ- 
ence is  still  considerable  over  the  populations 
among  whom  they  live,  and  in  the  local 
courts  in  which  they  sit.  It  is  however  of  a 
mutinous  nature,  and  seldom  employed  either 
in  facilitating  the  introduction  of  the  new 
measures  attempted  by  the  Government  for 
the  improvement  of  the  administration,  or  in 
promoting  the  general  welfare  of  the  coun- 
try. 

Some  beys  in  the  interior  still  possess  con. 
siderable  landed  property,  but  with  few  ex- 
ceptions their  estates  are  dilapidated  and 
heavily  mortgaged  ;  while  their  owners  are 
so  deeply  in  debt  to  the  Government  that  if 
called  to  a  reckoning  under  a  well-regulated 
administration  they  would  be  ruined  men. 
A  few,  however,  whose  estates  are  in  better 
condition  are  more  enlightened,  and  take  a 
real  interest  in  the  welfare  of  their  country. 

The  country  contains  extensive  areas  of 
mirie  lands  reclaimed  from  the  waste,  for 
which  of  late  years  there  has  been  a  great 
demand  made  by  the  peasants,  who  reclaim 
portions  of  them  by  paying  a  small  fee  of 
about  Is.  an  acre.  They  cultivate  or  build 
upon  them,  and  after  paying  tithes  for  the 
space  of  twenty  years  get  the  Tapou,  or  title- 
deed,  from  the  Porte  constituting  them  legal 
owners.  But  although  subjected  to  special 
laws  and  restrictions  and  under  government 
supervision,  it  is  a  dangerous  speculation, 
often  involving  litigation,  and  liable  to  usur- 
pation. 

Great  abuses  are  occasioned  by  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  Tapou  Memours,  or  inspectors,  who 
within  the  last  seven  years  have  been  in- 
trusted with  the  supervision  and  legislation 
of  such  lands,  and  regulate  them  (irrespective 
of  the  rights  of  Christian  or  Turkish  land- 
holders) in  favor  of  the  highest  bidder.  The 
consequences  are  that  many  persons  have 
been  dispossessed  of  their  property,  others 
have  had  to  pay  high  prices  to  retain  it  by 
obtaining  Tapous,  whilst  many  are  daily  being 
driven  out  of  their  lands.  An  example  of 
this  kind  presented  itself  the  other  day  in  the 
local  court  of  the  town  of  L .  The  claim- 
ant was  a  Turkish  Hanoum  ;  the  disputants, 
Turkish  and  Christian  peasants.  The  lady, 
a  widow,  had  inherited  an  estate  bordering 
on  some  waste  land  upon  which  these  peas- 
ants had  built  a  village.  The  Hanoum  in  the 
mean  time  married  au  influential  person  at 
Constantinople,  through  whose  authority  and 
assistance,  she  managed  to  obtain  a  Tapou,  in- 
cluding the  village  of  the  settlers  on  the.  waste 
land  within  her  own  property.    The  villagers 


THE  PEOPLE  OF   TURKEY. 


25 


indignantly  protested  against  this  act  of  usur- 
pation, and  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  the  lady,  who,  however,  re- 
turned, furnished  with  powerful  Emirnames 
from  the  Porte  to  the  town  of  L to  en- 
force her  claims.  The  complaints  of  the 
peasants  were  disregarded,  and  they  them- 
selves were  seized  as  criminals  and  brought 
to  the  Konak,  driven  into  it  by  blows  that 
fractured  the  skull  of  one  and  occasioned 
severe  injuries  to  others,  and  then  impris- 
oned. 

Disputed  claims  like  this  on  commons, 
forests,  etc.,  are  innumerable.  The  estates 
sold  by  the  crown  also  labor  under  the  same 
disadvantages.  Among  many  cases  I  may  re- 
late one  in  which  the  purchaser  was  an  Eng- 
lish gentleman  who  bought  a  large  estate  in 
Upper  Macedonia,  comprising  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  lakes  in  the  country.  It  was 
an  ancient  fief,  sold  for  the  sum  of  2000?. 
The  speculation  promised  to  be  a  splendid 
one,  and  a  fortune  was  expected  to  be  realized. 
One  day,  however,  as  the  owner  was  walk- 
ing over  his  grounds,  an  old  Turkish  peasant 
presented  himself,  and  with  much  natural 
eloquence,  and  perhaps  some  truth,  explained 
to  the  English  bey  that  the  former  owner  had 
usurped  part  of  his  fields  which  were  com- 
prised in  the  estate.  The  proprietor,  either 
convinced  of  the  man's  rights,  or  out  of  kind- 
ness, ordered  that  the  contested  lands  should 
be  restored ;  but  the  one  individual  thus 
righted  soon  developed  into  a  legion,  all  pre- 
senting equal  claims.  Subsequently  the 
legion  became  a  band  of  armed  and  menacing 
Albanians,  who  by  their  hostile  attitude 
stopped  all  attempts  at  culture,  and  threatened 
to  shoot  the  tenants  and  the  steward,  burn 
the  crops,  etc.  A  long  litigation  followed, 
and  the  affair  terminated,  after  much  loss  of 
time  and  damages  amounting  to  several  thou- 
sand pounds,  in  the  gentleman  re-selling  the 
estate  for  the  amount  he  had  paid  for  it. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  drawbacks, 
the  holders  of  mirie  lands  cannot  sell,  trans- 
fer, or  mortgage  them  without  a  license  from 
the  authorities,  nor  can  they  make  them 
Vakouf  property  without  a  special  Finnan 
from  the  Sultan. 

3.  The  MemloukS  or  Mulk  lands  are  the 
freehold  property  of  their  owner,  who  can  do 
with  them  whatsoever  pleaseth  him  well. 
They  do  not  form  a  large  proportion  of  the 
lands  of  Turkey,  and  a  reason  for  this  is  the 
prejudice  entertained  against  this  form  of 
tenure  on  account  of  the  difficulties  en- 
countered in  establishing  titles.  It  is  unfor- 
tunately no  unusual  thing  in  Turkey  for  title- 
deeds  to  be  forged,  substituted,  destroyed, 
and  otherwise  interfered  with. 

The  descent  and  division  of  Mirie  and  Va- 
kouf lands  are  regulated  by  imperial  firmans 
and  the  special  ordinances  of  the  Vakouf 
laws  ;  but  Memlouke  land  comes  under  the 
regulation  of  the  Meltkeme  or  court  of  the 
town  Kadi.  The  laws  of  Moslem  inheritance 
are  too  complicated  to  be  recorded  here,  and 
their  complexity  is  aggravated  by  the  mix- 
ture of  Christians  and  the  different  ways  of 
holding  land.  In  the  absence  of  heirs,  mirie 
and  memlouke  lands  revert  to  the  state  ;  va- 
kouf, as  already  mentioned,  to  the  adminis- 
tration of  pious  foundations. 

Memlouke  land  is  transferred  legally  by 
conveyance  ;  vakouf  and  mirie  by  convey- 
ance together  with  registration.  The  duty 
on  the  sale  of  memlouke  land  is  five  per 
cent,  and  the  succession  duty  two  and  a 
half  per  cent ;  on  mirie,  five  per  cent  on 
sale,  and  the  same  on  succession  ;  on  vakouf 
land,  five  per  cent  on  sale,  and  the  same  on 
succession  A  difference,  however,  is  made 
if  the  land  is  built  over. 

The  division  of  property  among  all  the 
children  and  the  reduction  of  its  value  by 
these  duties  tend  constantly  to  the  diminu- 
tion and  deterioration  of  Turkish  estates  and 
lead  generally  to  mortgage.  Mortgage  on 
landed  property  is  at  an  average  interest  of 
eighteen  per  cent.     The  result  is  easily  imag- 


ined. Freehold  lands  may  be  legally  mort- 
gaged before  two  witnesses  without  any  fur- 
ther precaution  ;  but  crown  and  "church" 
lands  to  be  mortgaged  must  be  registered  by 
the  registrar  of  title-deeds,  or  the  directors  of 
vakouf  property,  for  the  fee  of  (nominally) 
one  per  cent. 

A  great  number  of  large  estates  can  be  pur- 
chased in  all  parts  of  Turkey  for  very  small 
sums.  The  wealthy  native  Christians  would 
gladly  purchase  these,  but  for  the  complica- 
tions that  surround  the  possession  of  landed 
property  that  is  not  vakouf,  and  the  difficul- 
ties and  opposition  to  which  a  Christian  land 
holder  is  exposed.  Turks  seldom  look  favor- 
ably upon  the  passing  of  such  estates  into 
Christian  hands.  Those  who  purchase  them 
are  generally  foreign  subjects  ;  the  rayahs 
who  venture  to  do  so  can  never  enjoy  their 
acquisitions  in  the  same  peace  and  security. 
Among  many  instances  of  encroachment  on 
such  estates  by  hostile  beys,  Circassians,  and 
other  neighbors,  I  may  mention  two  that 
have  come  under  my  personal  observation. 
The  first  refers  to  a  wealthy  Bulgarian  gen- 
tleman, whose  acquaintance  I  made  ten  years 
ago  at  R .  He  was  a  man  of  great  influ- 
ence, and  a  member  of  the  Medjliss,  or  town 
council.  A  large  estate  owned  by  him,  not 
far  from  the  town,  was  twice  set  on  fire 
by  his  Mohammedan  neighbors,  and  a  large 
mill  he  had  constructed  was  pulled  down. 
Neither  his  influence  in  the  district,  nor  his 
wealth,  nor  his  position  as  member  of  the 
council,  could  protect  his  estate,  which  he 
was  finally  obliged  to  abandon. 

The  second  case  was  that  of  a  wealthy 
Greek  at  Baba  Eski,  a  pretty  village  between 
Constantinople  and  Adrianople.  Some  years 
ago  I  passed  a  night  in  the  house  of  this 
Chorbadji.  When  I  talked  to  him  about  his 
property  he  complained  bitterly  of  the  hos- 
tility he  experienced  from  his  Turkish  neigh- 
bors, and  of  the  encroachments  of  the  Cir- 
cassians. The  former  had  attempted  to  set 
fire  to  his  mill,  and  the  latter  had  stolen  in 
the  course  of  one  year  three  hundred  and  fifty 
head  of  cattle  from  him.  "  Wealth  and  pros- 
perity," said  he,  "are  the  sure  recompense 
of  every  man's  labor  in  a  fine  country  like 
this,  but  it  is  hard  work  to  keep  them  when 
acquired. ' '    Last  year  I  met  the  unfortunate 

man  at  C ;  he  was  a  complete  beggar  in 

appearance,  and,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  told 
me  how  the  Circassians  and  other  enemies, 
profiting  by  the  troubles  in  Bulgaria,  had 
completely  destroyed  his  property.  He  had 
come  to  the  town  to  obtain  redress,  but  I 
thought  that  his  efforts  would  be  fruitless. 

Many  gentlemen  in  Macedonia  are  owners 
of  large  estates.  Some  of  them  are  Greeks 
by  birth,  and  all  foreign  subjects  ;  for  foreign 
subjects  are  now  permitted  to  hold  land  in 
Turkey  on  the  same  conditions  as  the  sub- 
jects of  the  Porte.  Having  capital  at  their 
command,  and  being  more  intelligent  than 
the  Turks,  they  improve  their  property,  and 
realize  from  seven  to  ten  per  cent  profit ;  but 
even  their  estates  are  not  quite  free  from  the 
attacks  and  depredations  of  brigands,  who 
often  prevent  them  from  visiting  their  farms 
freely,  or  introducing  all  the  improvements 
they  are  desirous  of  making.  Out  of  four  of 
these,  three  sent  their  sons  to  Europe,  where 
they  were  educated  for  the  profession  of 
agriculturists,  a  proceeding  quite  unknown 
among  the  Turkish  proprietors.  Bond-fide 
Europeans  are  more  respected  and  feared, 
and  consequently  are  not  exposed  to  the  hos- 
tilities to  which  native  Christians  are  sub- 
jected. Some  English  gentlemen  possessing 
farms  in  Macedonia  have  had  no  occasion  to 
complain,  even  in  these  disordered  times, 
when  perfect  anarchy  prevails;  their  property 
has  been  respected,  and  every  assistance  is 
afforded  them  by  the  local  authorities. 

Estates  can  also  be  rented  for  a  mere  trifle, 
and  when  restored  to  good  condition  are  said 
to  yield  lucrative  returns.  Here  again,  how- 
ever, great  care  has  to  be  taken  to  ascertain 
that  they  are  not  disputed  property,  and,  in 


the  case  of  their  belonging  to  several  individ- 
uals of  one  family,  that  ail  are  of  age,  and 
sign  the  title-deeds.     A  case  was  related  to 

me  by  a  member  of  the  civil  court  of  A 

of  a  rayah  who  had  rented  an  estate  from  a 
Turkish  family,  consisting  of  a  widow  and 
her  three  sons,  all  of  whom  were  of  age  and 
had  signed  the  contract  together  with  their 
mother.  The  tenant,  who  was  a  man  of 
moderate  means,  set  to  work  to  improve  the 
property,  and  spent  £1000  upon  it  ;  but  just 
as  he  was  beginning  to  realize  the  profits  ot 
his  toil  and  outlay,  a  fourth  son  of  the  widow 
came  of  age  and  disputed  the  validity  of  the 
contract.  The  case  was  tried  before  the  lo- 
cal civil  court,  and  the  rayah  was  declared  to 
have  justice  on  his  side  ;  but  as  the  case  was 
one  of  heritage,  the  Turk  had  the  right  to 
transfer  it  to  the  Mehkeme,  or  religious  court 
of  the  Kadi,  which  decided  it  in" his  favor. 
The  result  was  that  the  tenant  was  driven 
out  of  his  estate,  and  lost  all  the  money  ho 
had  spent  upon  it. 

Almost  every  village  in  Roumclia  and  Mac- 
edonia, and  in  fact  all  over  Turkey,  had  once 
its  own  common  and  forest,  in  which  the 
peasant  proprietors,  under  certain  laws  and 
regulations,  had  the  right  to  burn  charcoal, 
cut  wood,  and  let  the  pasturage  in  spring  to 
the  herdsmen,  who  brought  down  their  sheep 
and  cattle  and  kept  them  there  the  greater 
part  of  summer.  This  was  a  great  resource 
for  the  rural  population,  who,  in  bad  years, 
could  always  make  some  profit  out  of  it. 

After  the  organization  of  the  vilayet  sys< 
tern  this  privilege  was  curtailed,  and  the  for- 
ests and  grazing  grounds  were  placed  unde( 
government  supervision.  A  Forest  Depart- 
ment was  established  at  Constantinople,  and 
a  chief  inspector  appointed  in  every  district, 
together  with  agents  to  superintend  the  pas- 
turages. The  laws  that  were  to  regulate 
these  were  said  to  be  excellent,  and,  whilst 
equitable  towards  the  peasants,  promised  at 
the  same  time  to  yield  considerable  revenues 
to  the  state.  One  of  these  regulations  set 
forth  that  a  portion  of  forest  and  pasturage 
land  should  be  left  to  the  use  of  each  village, 
securing  its  provision  of  fuel  and  pasturage 
for  its  cattle.  None  of  these  laws  were,  how- 
ever, observed  in  the  interior,  and  nothing 
definite  was  decided  with  respect  to  either  of 
these  rights. 

The  beys,  through  bribery  and  favoritism, 
continued  to  enjoy  their  ancient  privileges 
over  the  forests  and  grazing  lands,  while  the 
forest  inspectors  are  said  to  have  realized 
such  immense  profits  that  every  official  was 
desirous  of  becoming  connected  with  the 
Forest  Department.  The  Government  at  the 
beginning,  no  doubt,  derived  some  good  re- 
ceipts from  this  new  source,  but  the  great  ex- 
pense inseparable  from  it,  the  robberies  that 
took  place,  and  the  destruction  of  property 
allowed,  could  not  fail,  in  the  long-run,  to  be 
injurious  to  its  interests.  The  abuses,  par- 
tiality, and  waste  that  mark  the  proceedings 
of  this  branch  of  the  administration  are  most 
prejudicial  to  the  rural  population. 

But  the  agents  of  pasture  lands  and  the 
forest  keepers  are  still  more  tyrannical. 

The  extent  of  these  grounds  in  the  govern- 
ment possession  was  never  defined,  nor  has  a 
limit  ever  been  drawn.  The  beys  rented  the 
commons  to  the  herdmasters  ;  the  contracts 
were  made  with  the  cognizance  of  the  local 
authorities,  and  on  stamped  paper.  Some  of 
the  villages  that  possessed  pasturage  let  it  to 
the  Wallachiaii  sheep-owners,  who,  in  the 
early  part  of  spring,  migrate  annually  into 
Macedonia  to  pasture  their  flocks  on  the  com- 
mons. 

Some  herdsmen  had  made  contracts  for 
bringing  down  300,000  sheep  into  the  plains, 
paid  the  fees  for  the  contract,  and  the  stip- 
ulated sum  to  the  peasants.  All  the  ar- 
rangements seemed  in  perfect  order  until  the 
arrival  of  the  flocks  upon  the  different  graz- 
ing grounds,  when  they  were  driven  off  with 
violence  and  brutality  by  the  forest-keepers 
and  their  subordinates,  who  declared  that 


26 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


they  had  no  right  to  the  pasturage  unless 
they  paid  the  rent.  The  poor  people  pro- 
duced their  contract  to  show  that  they  had 
paid  the  money,  and  refused  to  do  so  a  sec- 
ond time  ;  justly  observing  that,  if  any  ille- 
gal action  existed  in  the  renting  of  the  pastur- 
age, it  regarded  the  Government  and  the  vil- 
lagers, and  not  them,  and  that  the  Govern- 
ment should  reclaim  the  money  from  the 
peasants.  This  dispute  lasted  a  week  ;  some 
of  the  Wallachians  referred  it  to  the  local 
authorities,  while  others  in  their  distress  ap- 
plied to  any  person  from  whom  assistance 
could  be  expected.  Day  after  day  these 
men,  women,  and  children  might  be  seen  in 
the  streets  of  the  town  with  desponding, 
careworn  faces,  anxiously  looking  out  for 
some  of  their  people  who  mi<rht  tell  "them  how 
the  case  was  prospering.  When  I  saw  them 
no  more  about  the  town,  I  asked  one  of  the 
principal  officials  how  the  affair  had  termi- 
nated ;  he  replied,  "  Madame,  malheureuse- 
ment  le  gouvcrnement  n'a  pas  su  encore 
mettre  toutes  ces  choses  en  ordre,  et  il  nous 
arrive  souvent  de  ces  cas  tristes  mais  <;a 
vient  d'etre  arrange."  He  would  not  en- 
lighten me  further  on  the  subject,  but  I  sub- 
sequently learnt  that  a  great  amount  of 
bakhshish  had  settled  the  matter  in  favor  of 
the  Wallachians 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

PEASANT   HOLDINGS. 

Small  Proprietors  South,  of  the  Balkans— Flourish- 
ing State  of  the  Country  a  few  Years  ago— A  Hose- 
Harvest  at  Keznnlik— Bulgarian  Villages— Oppressive 
and  Corrupt  System  of  Taxation  and  of  Pettv  Govern- 
ment—The Disadvantages  counterbalanced  by  the  In- 
dustry and  Perseverance  of  the  Bulgarian  Peasant — 
The  Lending  Fund  in  Bulgaria— Its  Short  Duration- 
Bulgarian  Peasant  often  unavoidably  in  Debt — Bul- 
garian Cottages— Food  and  Clothing— Excellent  lte- 
ports  of  German  and  Italian  Engineers  on  the  Con- 
duct and  Working  Power  of  Bulgarian  Laborers- 
Turkish  Peasants— Turkish  Villages— Comparative 
Merits  of  Turkish  and  Bulgarian  Peasants — Land  in 
Macedonia  —  Chiefly  Large  Estates  —  Chiftliks  —  The 
JConak,  or  Residence  of  the  Owner — Country  Life  of 
the  Bey  and  his  Family— His  Tenants  (Yeradjis)— 
Character  of  the  Yeradji— His  Wretched  Condition— 
The  Metayer  System  Unfairly  Worked— The  Yeradji 
generally  in  Debt— Virtually  a  Serf  bound  to  the  Soil 
— Difficulty  of  getting  Peasants  to  become  Yeradjis — 
Statute  Labor — Cultivation  and  Crops. 

The  land  south  of  the  Balkans,  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  frontier  of  Macedonia,  is  di- 
vided into  small  holdings,  which  belong  to 
and  are  farmed  by  a  peasant  population  of 
an  essentially  agricultural  nature.  Before 
the  late  destruction  of  property  in  Bulgaria, 
almost  every  peasant  in  those  districts  was  a 
proprietor  of  from  rive  to  forty  acres,  which 
he  farmed  himself.  The  larger  estates,  of 
which  there  were  a  considerable  number,  were 
superintended  by  the  proprietors  themselves, 
but  farmed  by  hired  laborers.  The  follow- 
ing figures  will  give  an  idea  of  the  average 
extent  of  the  holdings  in  those  districts  : 
Out  of  a  thousand  farms,  three  had  five  hun- 
dred acres  ;  thirty  had  between  one  hundred 
and  five  hundred  ;  three  hundred  between 
fifty  and  a  hundred  ;  four  hundred  between 
ten  and  fifty  ;  and  two  hundred  and  sixty- 
seven  under  ten  acres.  All  these  lands  were 
wrell  cultivated  and  yielded  rich  returns.  I 
was  astonished  at  the  beauty  and  flourishing 
condition  of  the  country  during  a  journey  I 
made  some  years  ago  from  Adrianople  to 
Servia.  It  appeared  like  a  vast  and  fruitful 
garden.  The  peace-loving  and  toiling  Bul- 
garian was  seen  everywhere  steadily  going 
through  his  daily  work,  while  his  equally 
active  and  industrious  wife  and  daughters 
were  cheerfully  working  by  his  side.  En 
route,  I  stopped  a  few  days  in  the  lovely  town 
of  Kezanlik,  and  was  most  kindly  received  by 
its  well-to-do  and  intelligent  inhabitants,  who 
pressed  their  hospitality  upon  me  with  a  gen- 
uine kindness  never  to  be  forgotten.  I  vis- 
ited the  schools,  in  which  the  people  prided 
themselves  as  much  as  in  the  astonishing 
progress  the  pupils  were  making  in  their 
studies.  I  was  also  taken  on  a  round  of 
visits  into  well-built  clean  houses  where 
European  furniture  was  beginning  to  find  a 


place,  and  contrasted  pleasantly  with  the 
well-made  native  tissues  that  covered  sofas 
and  floors.  At  dawn  next  morning  a  tap  at 
my  door  announced  that  it  was  time  to  rise 
and  witness  the  rose  -  gathering,  which  I 
wished  to  see.  The  roses  begin  to  be  col- 
lected before  sunrise,  in  order  to  keep  in 
them  all  the  richness  of  their  perfume.  It 
requires  expedition  and  many  hands  ;  so 
large  bands  of  young  men  and  maidens, 
adding  pleasure  to  toil  whilst  gathering  the 
roses,  amuse  themselves  by  carrying  on  their 
innocent  little  flirtations  and  love-makings. 

The  large  garden  to  which  I  was  conducted 
belonged  to  the  wealthy  Chorbadji  in  whose 
house  I  was  staying.  It  was  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  town,  and  by  the  time  we 
reached  it  the  bright  rays  of  a  lovely  spring 
morning  were  f  astf  spreading  over  the  horizon. 
The  field  was  thickly  planted  with  rose- 
bushes, with  their  rich  harvest  of  half-open 
dew-laden  buds.  The  nightingales,  in 
flights,  hovered  over  them,  disputing  their 
possession  with  the  light-hearted  Bulgarian 
harvesters,  and  chorusing  with  their  rich 
notes  the  gay  songs  of  the  scattered  company, 
who,  dressed  in  their  Prasnik  (feast-day) 
clothes, — the  youths  in  snow-white  shirts  and 
gaudy  sleeveless  vests,  the  girls  in  their  pic- 
turesque costume,  the  colored  kerchiefs  on 
their  heads  floating  in  the  breeze,— hud  the 
appearance  of  a  host  of  butterflies  flitting 
over  the  flowers.  The  girls  were  actively 
and  cheerfuly  employed  in  stripping  off  the 
buds  and  throwing  them  into  the  baskets 
slung  on  their  arms.  The  youths  helped  them 
in  the  task,  and  were  rewarded  each  with  a 
bud  from  his  sweetheart,  which  he  placed  in 
his  cap.  The  children  ran  to  and  fro  empty- 
ing the  baskets  into  larger  receptacles  pre- 
sided over  by  the  matrons,  who  sat  under  the 
shade  of  the  trees  and  sorted  the  roses.  The 
whole  picture  was  so  bright  and  happy,  in 
such  harmony  with  the  luxuriant  beauty  sur- 
rounding it,  that  I  was  perfectly  fascinated 
by  it,  and  felt  almost  envious  of  those  happy 
beings  (as  I  then  thought  them),  the  careless 
simple  children  of  nature.  Their  happiness 
was  not  for  long. 

It  is  not  a  week  since  my  attention  was 
attracted  by  an  article  in  one  of  our  papers 
describing  the  destruction  of  Kezanlik  and 
the  horrors  the  writer  had  witnessed.  The 
once  smiling  and  fruitful  district  was  become 
the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  villages  in 
Bulgaria  was  very  pleasing.  Those  in  the 
plains  were  not  so  well  built  or  so  picturesque 
as  those  nestled  among  the  hills,  where  the 
abundance  and  cheapness  of  the  material 
needed  for  building  afforded  greater  facilities 
for  more  solid  and  more  artistic  construction. 
Some  of  these  villages  had  increased  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  look  like  small  towns.  This 
was  owing  to  the  more  equal  division  of  land 
among  the  people  and  the  large  number  of 
landed  proprietors  that  cultivated  it.  In  the 
midst  of  the  difficulties  that  surrounded  them, 
such  as  an  irregular  and  unequal  system  of 
taxation  and  the  encroachment  and  tyrannies 
of  petty  government  officials,  Zaptiehs,  Cir- 
cassians, and  sometimes  native  beys  —  the 
Bulgarian  peasant,  by  his  steady  and  perse- 
vering habits  of  industry,  managed  to  get  on, 
and  in  some  places,  when  favored  by  circum- 
stances, even  to  become  wealthy  A  species 
of  lending  fund  was  organized  (since  the  in- 
troduction of  the  vilayet  system)  by  the  pro- 
vincial government,  chiefly  for  the  benefit  of 
the  peasant  class  of  proprietors.  The  capital 
of  this  fund  was  derived  from  an  annual  tax 
of  two  bushels  of  wheat  (or  their  equivalent 
in  money)  levied  on  every  yoke  of  oxen 
owned  by  the  farmers,  and  of  money  con- 
tributed by  those  not  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture, to  the  value  of  one-tenth  of  their  in- 
come-tax. The  agricultural  interest  of  the 
country  derived  great  advantage  from  this 
institution.  It  helped  the  small  farmers  to 
borrow  the  sum  needed  for  the  cultivation  of 
their  crops  and  the  purchase  of  stock  at  a 


reasonable  rate  of  interest,  and  enabled  those 
who  had  large  estates  to  improve  them  with- 
out mortgaging  ;  while  others  were  enabled 
to  free  their  estates  from  the  mortgages  which 
already  burdened  them.  I  believe  that  this 
excellent  institution  did  not  long  continue  in 
working  order,  and  that  latterly  it  was  be- 
yond the  reach  of  those  who  really  needed 
the  money  and  might  have  benefited  both 
their  farms  and  the  State  by  its  use. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  Bulgarian  peasant  is 
not  wealthy.  There  are  many  villages  that 
were  so  deeply  in  debt  that  for  years  they 
had  not  been  able  to  pay  their  taxes.  A  ris- 
ing was  occasioned  in  one  of  the  villages  of 
the  district  of  Sofia  on  this  account.  The 
Pasha  of  Sofia  had  been  pressed  by  the  Porte 
to  send  some  money  to  Constantinople  ;  he, 
on  his  part,  had  to  collect  it  from  the  people. 
Calling  up  a  Chaoush  of  Zaptiehs,  he  told 
him  to  make  the  round  of  the  villages,  and, 
under  pain  of  instant  dismissal,  not  to  return 
empty-handed.  The  Zaptieh  was  a  bandit, 
like  many  of  his  brethren  who  have  repre- 
sented the  police  corps  since  the  diminution 
of  pay  and  abolition  of  the  excellent  body 
that  had  been  organized  by  the  wise  policy  of 
Fuad  Pasha  and  Ali  Pasha.  He  inarched 
with  his  band  into  one  of  the  villages  and  de- 
manded that  £400  should  at  once  be  paid  to 
him.  The  men  were  absent  from  the  village, 
and  the  women,  not  authorized  to  act  in  such 
matters,  could  not  accede  to  his  demand. 
The  Zaptiehs  then  seized  some  and  locked 
them  up  in  a  barn,  and,  after  subjecting  them 
to  gross  ill-treatment,  left  the  village.  The 
unfortunate  peasants,  thus  pressed  by  the 
authorities  for  taxes  they  could  not  pay,  and 
subjected  to  foul  and  violent  treatment,  re- 
volted. 

A  Bulgarian  cottage  is  neither  neat  nor  reg- 
ular in  construction.  A  number  of  poles  are 
stuck  in  the  ground,  secured  to  each  other  by 
wattles,  plastered  within  and  without  with 
clay  and  cow-dung  mixed  with  straw.  The 
walls  are  generally  whitewashed,  and  the 
roof  raised  to  a  dome  covered  with  tiles  or 
thatch.  The  interior,  divided  into  three 
rooms,  is  neat  and  clean.  One  of  the  apart- 
ments is  used  as  the  living-room  of  the  family, 
another  as  sleeping-room,  while  the  third  is 
reserved  for  storing  provisions  and  such-like 
domestic  purposes.  These  rooms  are  of 
tolerable  height,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
feet  long  and  ten  to  fifteen  wide.  The 
earthen  floor  is  hardened  and  covered 
with  coarse  matting  and-  woollen  rugs,  the 
handiwork  of  the  inmates.  The  furniture 
consists  principally  of  the  thick  woven  tis- 
sues used  for  bedding  and  carpeting. 

Pictures  of  the  saints  and  relics  from  Mount 
Athos  adorn  the  walls  ;  a  night-lamp  may  be 
seen  suspended  before  the  most  venerated  of 
these  objects,  serving  the  double  purpose  of 
veilleuse  and  mark  of  regard  to  the  saint. 
The  shelves  round  the  walls  contain  the 
crockery  and  shining  copper  pans,  a  pair  of 
pistols,  and  various  other  articles.  The  bed- 
ding, neatly  rolled  up,  is  piled  in  one  corner, 
while  near  the  door  stand  the  jars  of  fresh 
water.  Attached  to  these  cottages  are  sheds 
for  the  farm  stock  ;  and  a  cow-house,  pig-sty, 
and  poultry-house,  an  oven,  and  sometimes  a 
well,  are  inclosed  in  the  yard,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls  or  fences,  and  guarded  by 
dogs. 

In  the  hilly  districts,  the  cottages  of  both 
Mohammedans  and  Christians  are  constructed 
with  considerable  solidity.  The  peasants 
throughout  European  Turkey  arc  economical 
and  frugal  ;  their  wants  are  few,  and  they 
are  content  with  very  little.  They  seldom 
taste  fresh  meat,  and  generally  live  on  ryo 
bread  and  maize  porridge,  or  beans  seasoned 
with  vinegar  and  pepper.  The  dairy  produce 
is  consumed  at  home,  and  on  great  occasions 
a  young  pig  or  lamb  serves  as  a  piece  de  resist- 
ance, washed  down  by  home-made  wine. 
For  pastry  they  have  a  cake  called  Banitea, 
much  relished  by  all. 

The  clothing  of  the  peasants  is  warm  and 


THE   PEOPLE   OP   TURKEY. 


27 


comfortable.  It  is  chiefly  composed  of  wool- 
len stuffs,  coarse  linen,  or  cotton  cloth.  Every 
single  article  of  wearing  apparel  is  woven, 
embroidered,  and  made  up  by  the  hands  of 
the  women,  who  are  at  the  same  time  spin- 
ners, weavers,  and  tailors.  When  coming  to 
town,  and  on  Pramik  days,  coarse  socks  and 
sandals  are  worn  ;  these  are  also  home-made, 
and  their  use  on  other  occasions  is  dispensed 
with. 

The  Bulgarian  peasant  is  strong  and  healthy 
in  appearance.  Both  in  Bulgaria  and  Mace- 
donia he  is  a  diligent  worker.  He  may  not 
have  the  smartness  and  activity  of  the  Eng- 
lish laborer,  but  I  have  often  been  assured 
that,  notwithstanding  the  numerous  feast- 
days  he  keeps,  at  the  end  of  the  year  ho  is 
found  to  have  completed  almost  as  much 
work,  for  the  simple  reason  that  he  makes  his 
working-day  much  longer,  and  his  whole 
family  turn  out  to  assist  him  ;  for  the  women 
of  these  districts  are  as  industrious  as  the 
men  :  no  sooner  are  their  household  tasks  ac- 
complished than  they  join  the  paterfamilias 
in  the  field. 

The  German  and  Italian  engineers  who  un-' 
dertook  the  construction  of  the  railways  in 
Macedonia  repeatedly  asserted  that  the  labor 
of  the  natives  was  equal  to  that  of  Euro- 
peans. In  Macedonia,  the  Italian  company, 
on  commencing  operations,  brought  out  live 
hundred  Italian  navvies  to  work  on  the  line  ; 
but  on  discovering  that  the  natives,  when 
well  paid,  well  treated,  and  shown  how  to  set 
about  it,  did  the  work  better  than  the 
Italians,  the  latter  were  sent  away.  These 
gentlemen  were  most  warm  in  their  praises 
of  the  steadiness  of  the  men  and  of  the  excel- 
lence of  their  work  ;  but  I  must  add  that 
they  did  not  omit  to  study  the  character  of 
the  people  and  treat  them  with  the  kindness 
and  consideration  that,  in  the  long-run,  never 
fail  to  improve  and  elevate  even  the  most 
debased. 

The  Turkish  peasants,  who  are  in  the  mi- 
nority both  in  Bulgaria  and  Macedonia,  have 
also  a  healthy  appearance,  added  in  the 
former  place  to  a  look  of  audacity,  and  in  the 
latter  to  a  look  of  ferocity.  The  Greek  peas- 
ant is  tall  and  rather  slim,  with  an  intelli- 
gent look  and  a  hardy  and  self-reliant  ex- 
pression. 

All  the  rural  population  is  sober.  Greek 
and  Bulgarian  peasants  have,  it  is  true,  every 
now  and  then,  an  orgy  ;  but  there  is  no  sys- 
tematic drunkenness.  All  the  well-to-do 
farmers  and  peasants  keep  a  provision  of 
wine  and  raid,  or  spirit,  but  their  daily  por- 
tion is  moderate,  and  excesses  are  only  in- 
dulged in  on  feast-days,  and  even  these  are 
not  of  a  very  serious  nature. 

All  the  villages,  both  Greek  and  Bulgarian, 
have  their  Kodja-Bashis,  who  see  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  village,  proportion  the 
taxes,  settle  petty  disputes,  attend  to  the  ar- 
rival and  reception  of  guests,  Zaptiehs  and 
troops,  and  other  wants  or  necessities  of  the 
community. 

The  Turkish  villages  bear  a  more  impover- 
ished appearance  and  look  more  neglected 
and  decaying  than  the  Christian.  This  is 
partly  owing  to  the  seclusion  of  the  women, 
who  are  little  seen  about,  and,  unlike  the 
Christian,  never  sit  working  at  their  doors. 
They  are  helpless  ;  do  no  field  work,  and 
very  little  weaving  ;  and  occupy  themselves 
solely  about  their  in-door  duties,  and  as  these 
are  not  very  heavy,  they  consequently  spend 
much  of  their  time  idly.  The  men  are  labo- 
rious, but  not  so  active  and  energetic  as  the 
Christians.  They  spend  a  good  deal  of  time 
smoking  in  the  coffee-houses  of  the  village, 
and  are  much  poorer  than  the  Christians. 
This  is  due  partly  to  their  character  and  to 
the  absence  of  all  help  from  their  wives,  but 
also  in  great  part  to  the  conscription,  which 
takes  many  valuable  years  of  labor  from  the 
working-man.  Drunkenness  is  rare  among 
Turks  of  this  class,  but  when  chance  cases 
occur  they  are  of  the  most  vicious  and  incur- 
able kind. 


In  Macedonia  landed  property  is  more  un- 
equally divided  than  in  Bulgaria.  Great  por- 
tions of  it  are  united  in  large  estates  held  by 
native  beys,  or  by  pashas  and  officials  at  Con- 
stantinople. Some  of  these  estates  comprise 
an  immense  area,  of  which  only  a  part  is  cul- 
tivated. They  are  called  Chiftliks  ;  the 
house,  or  Konak,  on  the  estate,  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  owner  when  he  visits  it,  for  he 
seldom  resides  on  his  property,  but  is  repre- 
sented by  a  Soubashi,  or  agent.  The  elegance, 
dimensions,  and  comfort  of  the  Konak  de- 
pend, of  course,  upon  the  means  and  habits 
of  the  owner.  Some  of  the  more  ancient  of 
these  edifices  are  large  and  spacious,  built  in 
the  style  of  the  old  Konaks  at  Stamboul  ; 
but  they  present  a  still  more  dilapidated  and 
neglected  appearance.  Others  of  more  re- 
cent erection  are  smaller,  but  neither  more 
comfortable  nor  more  tidy  in  appearance. 
Some,  again,  are  in  the  form  of  turrets, 
which,  if  not  elegant,  have  at  least  the  merit 
of  being  as  strong  as  small  fortresses.  A 
large  court-yard  contains,  beside  the  house, 
the  usual  farm  buildings.  On  entering  the 
yard  of  the  best  regulated  Ghiftlik,  the  first 
thing  that  attracts  the  attention  is  the  air  of 
complete  disorder  and  dirt  that  pervades  the 
premises.  »In  one  or  two  corners  may  be  seen 
heaps  of  refuse,  in  others  broken  carts  and 
farm  implements  standing  in  the  midst  of 
mud-pools  and  filth  of  every  description,  in- 
cluding a  collection  of  old  brooms  that  could 
never  have  been  worn  out  in  sweeping  the 
place.  Among  these,  children,  fowls,  geese, 
clucks,  and  dogs  roam  in  freedom.  The  interior 
of  the  Konak  is  usually  divided  into  Haremlik 
and  Selamlik,  if  sufficiently  large.  One  or  two 
rooms  in  each  department  may  be  furnished 
with  a  few  hard  sofas  and  dingy  calico  cur- 
tains. The  room  reserved  for  the  master 
sometimes  presents  a  somewhat  better  appear- 
ance, its  walls  decorated  with  fire-arms,  some- 
times of  beautiful  workmanship,  and  its  fur- 
niture boasting  a  deal  table  and  a  few  chairs. 
When  the  Bey  intends  paying  a  long  visit 
to  his  estate  and  is  accompanied  by  his  fam- 
ily, the  bedding  and  other  household  necessa- 
ries are  brought  from  town.  It  is  astonish- 
ing to  see  how  little  luggage  a  Turkish  fam- 
ily travels  with  on  such  an  occasion.  Each 
person  will  have  a  boghcha*  containing  his  or 
her  wearing  apparel ;  the  articles  for  general 
use  comprise  a  few  candlesticks,  petroleum 
lamps,  perhaps  two  Leyen  f  and  If/rik  %  for 
ablutions,  which  in  the  morning  and  at  meal 
times  make  the  round  of  the  house  ;  kitchen 
utensils  and  a  few  tumblers,  plates,  etc. ,  are 
all  that  is  needed  for  the  Villeggiatura  of  a 
Turkish  family. 

The  way  in  which  the  Bey  spends  his  time 
on  his  estate  is  also  regulated  by  the  means 
and  tastes  of  the  individual.  If  he  be  a 
sportsman,  he  will  have  a  battue  on  his  lands 
and  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  the  chase.  Should 
he  be  addicted  to  drinking  and  debauchery, 
he  has  every  means  of  indulging  his  taste. 
His  duties  as  landlord  consist  in  regulating 
accounts  with  his  agent,  hearing  the  cases 
that  need  his  interference,  giving  general  in- 
structions for  future  operations,  and,  above 
all,  realizing  the  profits.  As  to  improving 
his  estate,  ameliorating  the  condition  of  the 
tenants,  beautifying  the  property  by  planting 
trees  and  laying  out  gardens,  such  things  are 
never  thought  of  or  known  to  have  been 
practised  by  any  large  land-owner  in  Mace- 
donia. ' 

The  harem,  on  their  side,  bring  friends  to 
stay  with  them  ;  and  the  days  are  spent  in 
roaming  out  barefooted  in  the  most  negliges 
costumes,  eating  fruit,  and  helping  to  make 
the  winter  provisions,  such  as  Tarhana  Kotts- 
kous,  Youfka,%  Petmaiz,{  Beehel,%  and  NicJui- 


*  Boghcha,  bundle, 
t  Leyen,  basin. 
t  Ibrik,  jug. 

§  Pastes  for  soup  and  pilaf. 
I  Molasses  made  from  grapes. 
1  Preserves  made  with  molasses  from  fresh  or  dried 
fruits. 


sieh.  *  No  needlework  is  brought  to  fill  up  the 
leisure  hours  of  country  life  ;  the  only  amuse- 
ments are  the  indecent  conversation  and  the 
practical  jokes  of  the  parasites  who  never  fail 
to  accompany  such  parties. 

The  villages  owned  by  the  bey  are  made  up 
of  the  dwellings  of  the  tenants.  These  for  the 
most  part  present  a  pitiable  appearance  of 
poverty  and  misery,  though  their  interiors 
are  as  clean  as  circumstances  will  allow. 
They  are  constructed  of  mud  and  wattle,  and 
divided  into  two  or  three  rooms,  with  small 
openings  for  windows,  and  open  chimneys. 
A  fence  incloses  the  house,  together  with  the 
granary  and  cattle-shed.  The  tenants  are, 
with  few  exceptions,  Christians,  and  are  called 
Temdjis.  They  are  poor,  and  look  dejected 
and  depressed,  a  demeanor  I  have  often  heard 
superficial  observers  attribute  to  laziness  and 
natural  worthlessness.  This  judgment  may 
be  just  in  some  instances,  but  can  by  no 
means  be  taken  as  generally  correct ;  the 
people  are  as  willing  to  work  and  gain  an 
honest  living  as  those  of  any  other  land,  but 
they  labor  under  certain  disadvantages  which 
merit  attention,  and  which,  when  carefully 
examined,  will  go  far  to  justify  their  failings. 

A  Yeradji's  house  costs  from  £30  to  £50  ; 
sometimes  it  is  built  by  the  landlord,  some- 
times by  the  tenant  himself.  This  may  hap- 
pen for  instance  when  the  Yeradji  has  a  son 
to  marry  and  the  landlord  refuses  to  build  a 
house  for  him,  in  which  case  he  has  to  build 
it  at  his  own  expense,  and  should  he  leave 
the  estate,  receives  no  compensation  for  it. 
These  (Jhiftliks  are  cultivated  on  the  Metayer 
system  as  it  is  understood  and  practised  in 
Macedonia  ;  the  landlord  provides  the  seed  in 
the  first  instance,  the  Yeradji  finds  his  own 
yoke  of  oxen  or  buffaloes  and  implements, 
tills  the  ground,  sows  the  grain,  reaps  it, 
threshes  and  winnows  it,  and  when  the  seed 
for  the  next  year  and  the  tithes  have  been 
deducted,  shares  the  produce  with  the  land- 
lord. The  Metayer  system  on  a  luxuriant 
soil  like  that  of  Macedonia  would  not  only 
pay,  but  would  also  contribute  to  increase  the 
wealth  of  the  estate  and  improve  the  wretched 
condition  of  the  Yeradji  if  it  were  only  prop- 
erly and  equitably  administered.  But  it  is 
not  difficult  to  point  out  capital  failings  in  the 
working  of  the  system.  When  the  grain  is 
cut,  a  certain  number  of  sheaves,  forty  for 
instance,  of  the  finest  and  heaviest,  are  set 
aside  as  samples.  These  are  threshed  sep- 
arately, and  the  seed  for  the  next  year,  the 
tithes,  and  the  landlord's  share  deducted  ac- 
cording to  this  standard,  which  leaves  the 
Yeradji  an  iniquitously  small  proportion  of 
the  produce.  Under  this  unfair  arrangement 
the  Yeradji  has  to  give  for  every  head  of  cat- 
tle he  possesses  six  Constantinople  kiles  of 
barley  and  six  of  wheat  to  the  Soubashi  of  his 
bey. 

In  addition  to  these  the  Yeradji  has  to  de- 
fray the  heavy  burden  of  his  own  taxes,  and 
the  quartering  of  troops  and  Zaptiehs  upon 
him,  besides  other  burdens,  among  which 
must  be  reckoned  the  wasted  time  of  the 
numerous  feast-days,  that  deprive  him  of  so 
much  work  in  the  year.  Toil  as  hard  as  he 
may,  he  can  never  become  an  independent 
and  prosperous  man. 

When  these  estates  are  transferred  by  sale 
or  other  causes,  the  Yeradji,  should  he  be  in 
debt  to  the  estate,  goes  with  it  into  a  sort  of 
bondage  terminable  under  certain  conditions, 
viz.  :  his  industry  and  activity  and  the  hon- 
esty of  the  landlord  and  his  agent.  If  on 
one  hand  the  superabundance  of  feast-days 
is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  hindrance  to  the 
Yeradji  freeing  himself  from  debt,  the  un- 
scrupulous manner  in  which  his  master  or 
the  Soubashi  reckons  accounts  opposes  fresh 
obstacles  to  the  breaking  of  the  chain  that 
binds  him  to  the  soil.  Farm  accounts  are 
generally  kept  by  means  of  chetokts,  or  notched 
sticks,   a    very  primitive  mode,   leading  to 


*  Starch  made  from  wheat,  much  used  for  making- 
sweets. 


28 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


many  errors  being  committed,  wittingly  or 
unwittingly.  The  consequence  is  that  oil 
tenants  are  more  or  less  in  debt  to  their  land- 
lords in  the  same  manner  as  all  Turkish  land- 
lords are  in  debt  to  the  Government  or  to  pri- 
vate individuals. 

The  scarcity  of  Yeradjis  and  their  disqual 
iflcations  as  tenants  are  now  a  general  com- 
plaint throughout  Macedonia.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, surprising  that  the  better  class  of  peas- 
ants should  refuse  to  become  Yeradjis,  and 
that  the  inferior  classes,  employed  in  their 
absence,  should  be  found  fault  with  and  be 
always  in  debt. 

Of  late  years  some  of  these  estates  have 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Christians,  by  pur- 
chase or  mortgage.  These  proprietors,  as  a 
rule,  do  not  reside  on  Mich-estates,  which  are 
left  in  the  charge  of  an  agent,  but  content 
themselves  with  an  occasional  visit.  When 
this  property  is  well  situated,  and  (as  seldom 
happens)  free  from  litigation,  it  is  said  to  be  a 
good  investment. 

Besides  these  Yeradji  villages,  there  are 
the  Kephaloclioria ,  or  head  villages,  composed 
of  petty  landholders,  some  of  whom  were 
formerly  wealthy,  and  might  have  continued 
so  but  for  the  injury  done  to  them  by  the  for- 
est regulations  and  the  heavy  impositions  laid 
upon  them  by  the  Government  since  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war. 

One  of  the  principal  grievances  peasants 
labor  under  is  the  angaria,  or  statute-labor, 
into  which  man,  beast,  and  cart  are  impressed 
at  the  command  of  a  mere  Zaptieh,  causing  a 
loss  of  time,  and  injury  to  property  and 
cattle,  which  is  often  fatal  to  an  otherwise 
well-to-do  village.  A  village  on  a  main  road 
is  never  free  from  all  kinds  of  vexatious  im- 
positions and  the  quartering  of  Zaptiehs  and 
troops,  who,  whether  they  pay  or  not  for 
what  they  have  consumed,  extort  sums  of 
money  from  their  hosts,  and  are  always  care- 
ful to  take  away  with  them  a  declaration 
from  the  Kodja-Baski  that  all  accounts  have 
been  settled. 

The  Angaria  work  lately  exacted  from  the 
inhabitants  of  Cavalla  for  the  transport  of 
flour  for  the  use  of  the  army  was  very  nearby 
occasioning  troubles  of  a  nature  likely  to 
prove  fatal  to  the  whole  town.  The  affair 
originated  in  the  townspeople  being  required 
to  carry  on  Sunday  loads  which  they  willing- 
ly carried  on  Saturday.  They  refused,  and 
shut  themselves  up  in  their  houses  ;  where- 
upon an  excess  of  zeal  was  displayed  by  the 
police  in  trying  to  force  them  out  by  break- 
ing into  some  of  the  dwellings.  This  led  to 
a  slight  disturbance  which  encouraged  some 
noted  bad  characters  belonging  to  the  Moslem 
population  to  take  a  menacing  attitude,  and 
conspire  to  break  into  the  offices  of  some  of 
the  principal  merchants  of  the  town,  ransack 
them,  and  then  proceed  to  follow  the  prece- 
dent with  the  rest  of  the  town,  threatening 
the  Christians  with  massacre.  Panic  soon 
spread,  and  the  people  shut  themselves  in 
their  churches.  Men-of-war  were  telegraphed 
for,  but  luckily  the  local  authorities  were 
able  to  put  down  the  tumult,  and  order  was 
restored  without  loss  of  life.  The  incident 
is  instructive  in  showing  the  difficulties  and 
dangers  under  which  the  Macedonian  peasant 
carries  on  bis  work.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the 
land  is  ill-cultivated. 

Among  the  peasant  farmers  of  Roumclia 
there  is  no  regular  system  of  rotation  of 
crops  observed  ;  but  with  the  occupants  of 
large  estates  the  ordinary  rule  for  rich  lands 
is  two  wheat  crops  and  one  of  oats,  then  fal- 
low one  or  more  years,  wheat,  and  then 
sesame.  In  Macedonia,  where  arable  land  is 
more  abundant,  one  year's  rest  is  allowed  to 
some  lands.  The  only  manure  some  of  these 
lands  obtain  is  from  the  treading  of  the  sheep 
on  the  land  in  early  spring  and  after  the  har- 
vest is  reaped,  and  yet  the  soil  is  naturally 
so  rich  that  a  generally  bad  harvest  is  of  rare 
occurrence  The  mode  of  cultivation  is  very 
primitive,  employing  much  hand  labor  and 
involving  much  waste.     Tillage  is  performed 


with  the  native  plough,  on  an  average  depth 
of  four  inches  to  the  furrow.  The  instru- 
ment used  for  the  purpose  is  very  rude  and 
has  only  one  handle.  The  number  of  buffa- 
loes used  varies  from  two  to  five.  In  Rou- 
melia  some  large  estate  owners  attempted  in- 
troducing agricultural  implements  from 
Europe,  but  threshing-machines  alone  met 
with  any  success.  In  Macedonia  even  these 
proved  a  failure,  as  their  management  is  not 
understood,  and  fuel  is  difficult  to  procure  in 
the  interior.  In  some  parts  the  grain  is  scat- 
tered over  the  stubble  and  then  ploughed  in. 
Much  of  the  harvest  is  done  by  young  women 
and  girls  in  Roumeliaand  Macedonia.  They 
and  the  male  harvesters  hire  themselves  for 
the  June  harvest.  On  the  21st  August  the 
harvest-home  is  celebrated.  Decked  in  their 
holiday  costumes,  crowned  with  garlands, 
and  carrying  bouquets  composed  of  ears  of 
corn,  the  reapers  proceed  to  the  nearest  town 
to  dance  and  sing  before  the  doors  of  the 
principal  houses  and  in  the  market-place. 

Threshing  is  performed  in  the  most  an- 
tique manner  imaginable.  The  instrument 
used  for  the  purpose  consists  of  two  pieces  of 
wood  curved  at  one  end,  fastened  together, 
and  studded  with  a  number  of  flints.  This 
is  attached  at  the  curved  emi  ^o  a  team  of 
three  or  four  horses.  A  girl  stands  on  this 
sledge  and  drives  the  team  rapidly  over  the 
corn  thrown  in  bundles  on  the  ground,  which 
has  been  hardened  and  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose. This  process  breaks  the  straw  into 
very  small  lengths,  making  it  very  palatable 
food  for  the  cattle.  The  corn  is  winnowed 
by  being  thrown  up  in  the  air  with  wooden 
shovels,  the  breeze  carrying  away  the  chaff. 
In  some  parts  of  Macedonia  the  process  is 
even  more  simple.  A  team  of  horses  is  driv- 
en over  the  bundles  of  corn,  treading  out  the 
grain.  The  women  and  children  also  sit  on 
the  ground  and  help  in  the  operation  by  beat- 
ing it  with  sticks. 

The  principal  crops  raised  in  Roumclia  are 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  rye,  oats,  sesame,  and 
canary-seed.  A  considerable  quantity  of 
rice  is  grown  in  some  parts.  In  the  south, 
towards  Adrianople,  the  vine  reaches  some 
degree  of  perfection,  and  excellent  wine  is 
made,  which,  when  kept  for  some  years,  re 
sembles  sherry  in  taste  and  color.  The  mul- 
berry grows  abundantly,  and  before  the  silk- 
worm disease  appeared  in  those  districts 
formed  a  very  profitable  branch  of  industry. 
The  mulberry  gardens  sometimes  comprise 
several  acres  of  land  ;  when  they  are  near 
towns  or  large  villages,  the  silkworm  nurse- 
ries are  placed  in  them.  The  rearing  process 
begins  in  early  spring,  with  the  budding  of 
the  leaves,  and  lasts  over  two  months.  It  is 
a  very  tedious  and  laborious  work,  requiring 
great  neatness  and  attention,  and  is  generally 
undertaken  by  the  women.  When  the  crop 
succeeds  and  is  free  from  disease,  it  is  an  in- 
teresting process  to  watch.  In  Macedonia 
the  same  crops  are  grown,  with  the  addition 
of  a  large  supply  of  excellent  tobacco.  The 
best  comes  from  Drama  and  Cavalla. 

The  cattle  in  Turkey,  though  small,  are 
hardy  and  very  serviceable.  Little  attention 
has  hitherto  been  paid  by  the  Government  to- 
wards improving  the  breed.  The  sheep,  too, 
are  small,  and  their  wool  is  of  an  inferior 
quality.  Those  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are  mostly 
of  the  Karamanian,  or  broad-tailed,  breed. 
Their  fat  is  much  used  by  the  natives  for 
cookery,  and  their  milk  made  into  cheese. 
Sheep-farming  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent 
both  in  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey. 
Buffaloes  for  draft  purposes  and  ploughing, 
and  camels  as  beasts  of  burden,  are  very 
numerous,  especially  in  Asia  Minor.  Great 
numbers  of  goats  are  also  kept ;  their  milk  is 
much  used  for  making  cheese.  The  Angora 
goats  are  (I  need  hardly  say)  much  prized  for 
their  fleece.  Their  introduction  into  other 
parts  of  the  country  has  been  attempted  sev- 
eral times,  but  has  invariably  failed.  They  do 
not  thrive  away  from  their  native  moun- 
tains. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

TURKISH   HOUSES. 

The  Turkish  Quarter— A  Konak—  Haremlik  and  Se- 
lamlik  —  Arrangement  of  Rooms— Furniture  —  The 
Tandour— Turkish  Clemency  towards  Vermin— Bor- 
dofska— An  Albanian  Knnak— The  Pasha  and  his 
Harem— A  Turkish  Bas-bleu— Ruins  of  Konaks  out- 
side Uskup— The  Last  of  the  Albanian  Deri-Beys— A 
Konak  at  Bazardjik— The  Widow  of  the  Deri-Bey — 
Kiosks— Koalas— A  Koula  near  Salonika— Christian 
Quarters— Khans— Furniture— Turkish  Baths,  Public 
aud  Private— Cafes. 

Bright  sunshine,  fresh  air,  ample  space, 
and  pure  water  are  indispensable  to  the  felic- 
ity of  a  Turk.  Both  in  the  capital  and  in 
provincial  towns  the  Turkish  quarter  is  inva- 
riably situated  in  the  most  healthy  and  ele- 
vated parts,  and  occupies,  on  account  of  the 
gardens  belonging  to  almost  every  Turkish 
house,  double  the  ground  of  the  Christian 
and  Jewish  quarters.  These  gardens  are  till 
more  or  less  cultivated,  but,  except  in  the 
capital,  where  horticulture  has  obtained  some 
degree  of  perfection,  they  seldom  display 
either  taste  or  order.  A  few  fine  mulberry 
or  other  fruit  trees  may  be  seen  here  and 
there  overshadowing  patches  of  ground  bor- 
dered with  box  or  tiles,  and  planted  with 
roses,  lettuces,  and  garlic  ;  and  in  the  gar- 
dens of  the  better  class  of  houses  one  may 
often  see  pretty  fountains. 

The  streets  of  the  Turkish  quarter  are  nar- 
row and  irregular,  and,  except  in  the  princi- 
pal thoroughfares,  look  solitary  and  desert- 
ed ;  they  are,  however,  cleaner  than  those  of 
the  Christian  and  Jewish  quarters,  and  this 
for  three  good  reasons  :  they  are  little  fre- 
quented ;  they  are  not  encumbered  with  rub- 
bish, owing  to  the  space  the  Turks  possess  in 
their  court -yards  and  gardens,  where  they  can 
heap  up  most  of  the  refuse  that  the  Chris- 
tians have  to  throw  into  the  streets  ;  and 
they  are  better  patrolled  by  the  street  dogs, 
for  these  famous  scavengers,  being  under  the 
special  protection  of  the  Mussulman,  are 
more  numerous  in  the  Turkish  than  in  the 
other  quarters,  and  eat  up  all  the  animal  and 
vegetable  refuse. 

A  Turkish  konak,  or  mansion,  is  a  large 
building,  very  irregular  in  construction,  and 
without  the  slightest  approach  to  European 
ideas  of  comfort  or  convenience.  This  build- 
ing is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  haremlik 
and  the  selamlik  ;  the  former  and  larger  part 
is  allotted  to  the  women,  the  latter  is  occu- 
pied by  the  men  and  is  used  for  the  transac- 
tion of  business,  the  purposes  of  hospitality, 
and  formal  receptions.  The  stables  are  at- 
tached to  it,  forming  part  of  the  ground-floor, 
and  rendering  some  of  the  upper  rooms 
rather  unpleasant  quarters.  A  narrow  pas- 
sage leading  from  the  mabeyn  (or  neutral 
ground)  to  the  liaremlik  joins  the  two  estab- 
lishments. The  materials  used  for  building- 
are  wood,  lime,  mud,  and  stone  for  the  foun- 
dations. A  Konak  generally  consists  of  two 
stories,  one  as  nearly  as  possible  resembling 
the  other,  with  abundant  provision  for  the 
entrance  of  light  and  air.  A  large  hall,  called 
the  devankhane,  forms  the  entrance  into  the 
Haremlik  ;  it  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of 
rooms  of  various  sizes.  To  the  right,  the 
largest  serves  as  a  sort  of  ante-chamber,  the 
rest  are  sleeping  apartments  for  the  slaves, 
with  the  exception  of  one  called  kahve-agak, 
where  an  old  woman  is  always  found  sitting 
over  a  charcoal  brazier,  ready  to  boil  coffee 
for  every  visitor.  A  large  double  staircase 
leads  to  the  upper  story,  on  one  side  of  which 
is  the  kiler,  or  store-room,  and  on  the  other 
the  lavatories.  The  floors  are  of  deal,  kept 
scrupulously  clean  and  white,  and  in  the 
rooms  generally  covered  with  mats  and  rugs. 
The  furniture  is  exceedingly  poor  and 
scanty ;  a  hard  uncomfortable  sofa  runs 
along  two  and  sometimes  three  sides  of  the 
room  ;  ixuhslte,  or  small  square  mattress,  occu- 
pies each  corner,  surmounted  by  a  number  of 
cushions  piled  one  upon  the  other  in  regular 
order.  The  corner  of  the  sofa  isthe  seat  of 
the  Hanoum,  and  by  the  side  of  the  cushions 
are  placed  her  mirror  and  cliekmege. 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


39 


A  small  European  sofa,  a  few  chairs  placed 
stiffly  against  the  wall,  a  console  supporting 
a  mirror  and  decorated  with  two  lamps  or 
candlesticks,  together  with  a  few  goblets  and 
a  small  table  standing  in  the  centre  with 
cigarettes  and  tiny  ash-trays,  complete  the 
furniture  of  the  grandest  provincial  Buyuk- 
oda,  Though  sonic  Turks  possess  many  rare 
and  curious  objects,  such  as  ancient  armor 
and  china,  which,  if  displayed,  would  greatly 
add  to  the  elegance  and  cheerfulness  of  their 
apartments  these  are  always  kept  packed 
away  in  boxes. 

Windows  are  the  great  inconvenience  in 
Turkish  houses  ;  they  pierce  the  walls  on 
ever}-  side,  with  hardly  the  space  of  a  foot  be- 
tween them.  The  curtains  are  usually  of 
coarse  printed  calico,  short  and  scanty,  with 
the  edges  pinked  out,  so  that  when  washed 
they  present  a  miserably  ragged  appearance. 
The  innumerable  windows  render  the  houses 
ill-adapted  cither  for  hot  or  cold  weather  ; 
the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  pour  in  all  day  in 
summer,  and  the  frames  are  so  badly  con- 
structed that  the  cold  wind  enters  in  all  di- 
rections in  winter. 

Bedsteads  are  not  used  by  the  Turks  ;  mat- 
tresses are  nightly  spread  on  the  floor,  and 
removed  in  the  morning  into  large  cup- 
boards, built  into  the  walls  of  every  room. 
These  walls,  being  whitewashed  and  roughly 
furnished,  increase  the  uncomfortable  ap- 
pearance of  the  rooms,  which  at  night  are 
dimly  lighted  by  one  or  two  sperm  candles  or 
a  petroleum  lamp,  the  successors  of  the  an- 
cient tallow  caudle.  The  halls  and  passages 
are  left  in  obscurity,  and  the  servants  rind 
their  way  about  as  well  as  they  can. 

The  mangaU,  or  braziers,  are  the  warming 
apparatus  generally  used  by  the  Turks  in 
their  houses.  These  are  made  of  different 
metal  ;  some  fixed  in  wooden  frames,  others 
in  frames  of  wrought  brass  of  very  elegant 
and  costly  workmanship.  The  fuel  consists 
of  a  quantity  of  wood  ashes  in  which  burn- 
ing charcoal  in  half  buried. 

The  tandour,  now  nearly  fallen  into  dis- 
use, is  also  worthy  of  notice.  It  consists  of 
a  square  deal  table  with  a  foot-board  covered 
with  tin,  on  which  a  brazier  stands  ;  the 
whole  is  covered  with  a  thick  quilted  coun- 
terpane which  falls  in  heavy  folds  on  a  sofa 
running  round  it,  covering  the  loungers  up 
to  the  chin,  and  giving  one  the  idea  of  a 
company  of  people  huddled  together  in  bed. 
The  tandour  is  still  very  much  used  in  Smyr 
na,  and  round  it  the  Levantine  ladies  love  to 
sit  during  the  winter  months.  More  than 
one  English  traveller,  newly  arrived  in  the 
country,  when  ushered  into  a  drawing-room, 
is  said  to  have  rushed  frantically  out  again 
under  the  impression  that  he  had  surprised 
the  family  in  bed. 

The  furniture  of  the  selamlik  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  Ilaremlik.  A  family  often  removes 
from  one  set  of  apartments  to  another  ;  this 
propensity  is  doubtless  stimulated  by  the  de- 
sire to  escape  from  the  assaults  of  the  fleas 
and  other  vermin  that  swarm  in  the  rooms. 
When  once  these  insects  obtain  a  footing  in 
a  house,  it  is  difficult  to  get  rid  of  them, 
partly  on  account  of  the  unwillingness  of  the 
Turks  to  destroy  animal  life  of  any  descrip- 
tion, and  partly  because  these  insects  take  up 
their  abode  between  the  badly  joined  planks 
under  the  mats  and  rugs. 

I  was  once  visiting  at  the  house  of  a  Pasha 
lately  arrived  at  Adrianople.  The  Ilanoum, 
a  charming  woman,  was  complaining  bitterly 
to  me  of  her  rest  having  been  much  disturbed 
the  previous  night  by  the  abundance  of  these 
creatures  in  her  apartment.  One  of  the 
slaves  modestly  remarked  that  she  had  occu- 
pied herself  all  the  morning  in  scalding  the 
floor  of  the  room  her  mistress  had  slept  in, 
and  expressed  a  hope  that  she  would  not  be 
longer  troubled  in  that  respect.  A  general 
outcry  against  this  slave's  want  of  humanity 
was  raised  by  all  the  women  present,  and  a 
chorus  of  "  Yuzuk  !  Gunah  !"  (Pity  !  Sin  !) 
was  heard.     It  is  curious  that  they  raised  no 


such  outcry  when  they  heard  of  the  frightful 
destruction  of  human  life  that  took  place  a 
few  years  later  among  their  Christian  neigh- 
bors in  Bulgaria,  but  a  few  miles  from  their 
own  secure  homes  ! 

When  in  the  interior  I  had  the  opportunity 
of  visiting  some  Konaks  worthy  of  no1 
of  these  called  Bordofska,  situated  in  the 
heart  of  Albania,  gome  leagues  from  Uskup, 
had  been  built,  as  a  country  residence  by  the 
famous  Ilevni  Pasha.  It  was  an  immense 
building,  solidly  constructed  of  stone  at  the 
expense  and  with  the  forced  labor  of  the  peo- 
ple, who  were  pressed  into  the  work.  It  oc- 
cupied the  middle  of  a  large  garden  that  must 
have  been  beautiful  in  its  time,  and  being 
surrounded  by  high  walls  bore  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  a  feudal  castle.  This  fine  old 
building  had  become  the  property  of  Osman 
Pasha,  a  venerable  Turk  of  the  old  school  ; 
all  the  furniture  was  European,  and  of  a  very 
rich  and  elegant  description,  but  looked  worn 
and  neglected.  The  aged  Pasha  received  me 
with  the  politeness  and  hospitality  bis  nation 
knows  so  well  how  to  show  when  it  pleases. 

After  an  interchange  of  civilities,  and  hav- 
ing partaken  of  coffee,  I  was  invited  to  visit 
the  harem.  A  hideous  black  monster,  the 
chief  of  the  eunuchs,  led  the  way  through  a 
long  dark  passage  lined  with  forty  of  his 
brethren,  not  more  pleasant-looking  than 
himself,  who  salaamed  to  me  as  I  passed. 

My  then  limited  experiences  of  the  cus- 
toms of  harems  made  me  regard  this  gloomy 
passage  and  its  black  occupants  with  feelings 
of  curiosity,  not  unmingled  with  dread. 
The  chief  wife  of  Osman  Pasha  (for  I  believe 
he  had  six  others,  besides  slaves)  was  a  very 
fat,  elderly  person,  who  showed  little  dispo- 
sition to  give  me  the  hearty  and  civil  recep- 
tion I  had  just  received  from  her  husband, 
and  I  soon  discovered  that  she  belonged  to 
that  peculiar  class  of  Turkish  women  called 
Soffous — the  bas-bleus  of  Mohammedanism, 
bigoted  zealots  of  the  straitest  sect  of  the 
Moslem  Pharisees. 

On  entering  the  room  I  found  the  Hanoum 
seated  in  her  sofa  corner,  from  which  she 
did  not  rise  but  merely  gave  a  bend  of  the 
head,  with  a  cold  "  Ne  yaparsen  ?"  *  in  re- 
sponse to  my  deep  Oriental  obeisance.  She 
spoke  very  little,  and  the  few  words  she  was 
obliged  to  utter  were  intermingled  with 
Duvas  she  muttered  ;  perhaps  asking  for- 
giveness for  the  sin  she  was  committing  in 
holding  direct  intercourse  with  a  Giaour. 
The  other  wives,  who  were  all  pretty  and 
gay,  tried  to  make  amends  for  the  ill  humor 
of  their  doyenne,  and  were  as  kind  and  amia- 
ble as  etiquette  would  allow  in  her  presence. 

Four  other  Konaks  of  the  same  descrip- 
tion may  still  be  seen  outside  the  town  of 
Uskup,  standing  alongside  in  melancholy 
decay.  The  first  and  largest  was  intended 
for  the  residence  of  the  once  powerful  Hevni 
Pasha  himself  ;  the  second  for  his  son,  and 
the  two  others  for  his  daughters.  I  was 
deeply  impressed  by  the  sight  of  these  im- 
posing ruins,  and  visited  them  with  the  dou- 
ble object  of  satisfying  my  curiosity  and  as- 
certaining the  possibility  of  lodging  myself 
in  some  habitable  corner  of  one  of  them  dur- 
ing my  stay  in  the  neighborhood.  The  in- 
terior was  well  worth  seeing,  and  comprised 
splendid  apartments,  the  walls  and  ceilings 
being  decorated  with  gildings  and  elaborate 
carvings  in  walnut  wood.  The  baths  of 
sculptured  marble  could  still  be  taken  as 
models  of  that  luxurious  and  indispensable 
appendage  to  a  Turkish  house.  A  wing  of 
one  of  these  buildings  was  habitable  ;  but 
when  I  proposed  to  install  myself  in  it,  some 
natives  who  had  accompanied  our  party  ob- 
jected, saying  the  houses  were  hursous  and 
rtahleili,  having  been  cursed  by  the  people  at 
whose  expense,  and  by  whose  unrequited 
labor,  they  had  been  erected.  Even  the 
beasts,  they  said,  that  had  carried  the  heavy 
loads  of  building  material  were  seen  to  look 

*  "How  do  you  do  ?" 


up  to  heaven  and  groan  under  the  pressure 
of  their  burdens  ;  and  a  prophet  of  the  place 
had  foretold  the  downfall  of  the  owner  on 
the  day  of  the  completion  of  the  work.  This 
prophecy  was  fulfilled  to  the  letter,  for  on 
the  day  the  Pasha,  was  to  have  entered  his 
new  abode,  the  Turkish  Government,  suspi- 
cious of  his  growing  power  and  wealth,  man- 
aged to  lay  hands  upon  him. 

This  Deri  Bey*  is  said  to  have  been  a  won- 
derfully intelligent  man,  counterbalancing 
many  of  his  tyrannical  actions  by  the  zealous 
care  he  showed  in  promoting  tin;  individual 
safety  of  his  people  and  in  increasing  their 
prosperity.  Though  entirely  uneducated,  his 
natural  talents  were  great  enough  to  enable 
him  to  comprehend  the  advantages  of  mod- 
ern civilization,  and  to  lead  him  to  introduce 
some  recent  inventions  into  the  country  ;  he 
also  attempted  to  render  the  river  Vardar  (the 
ancient  Axius)  navigable. 

Ilevni  Pasha  and  his  txflvode*,  or  captains, 
twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago,  may  be 
looked  upon  as  the  last  representatives  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  wild  Albanian  clans,  who  at 
that  time  still  refused  to  recognize  the  au- 
thority of  the  Porte,  and  when  pressed  to  do 
so  broke  out  into  open  rebellion.  Badjuksis 
Ahmet  Pasha,  then  a  mere  colonel,  marched 
with  his  regiment  upon  Uskup,  one  of  the 
principal  strongholds  of  the  Albanians,  and, 
partly  by  stratagem  and  partly  by  threats, 
managed  to  penetrate  into  the  town  and  take 
possession  of  the  fortress.  In  the  meantime, 
Frank  Omar  Pasha,  the  field-marshal,  came 
with  some  regular  troops  to  his  assistance, 
having  previously  defeated  the  Albanians  in 
battle  at  Kaplan,  and  dispersed  them  into  the 
plains.  He  surrounded  the  town,  and  invited 
Ilevni  Pasha  with  his  captains  and  the  prin- 
cipal beys  of  the  town  into  the  fortress  to 
hear  the  Imperial  Firman  read.  This  cere- 
mony being  concluded  without  disturbance, 
Hevni  Pasha  and  such  of  his  party  as  were 
likely  to  continue  their  resistance  to  the  or- 
ders of  the  Porte  were  requested  by  the  mili- 
tary authorities  to  mount  at  once  the  horses 
that  had  been  surreptitiously  prepared  for 
them,  and  were  conveyed  under  escort  to 
Constantinople,  whence  they  were  sent  into 
exile,  their  families  being  sent  after  them, 
and  their  goods  confiscated.  Notice  was  next 
given  to  the  rest  of  the  native  beys  that, 
should  any  of  them  be  found  in  direct  or  in- 
direct communication  with  the  scattered 
bands  of  Albanians,  or  sending  provisions  to 
them,  the  guns  of  the  fortress  would  be  turn- 
ed upon  the  town,  which  would  be  razed  to 
the  ground.  This  was  a  master-stroke  on  the 
part  of  the  Government  ;  the  Albanians,  af- 
ter a  few  vain  attempts  at  Monastir,  Vrania, 
Philippopolis,  and  other  places,  to  resist  the 
authority  of  the  Sultan,  partially  submitted 
and  returned  to  their  impregnable  mountain 
fastnesses  ;  not,  however,  without  having 
committed  some  barbarities  similar  to  those 
recently  enacted  in  Bulgaria. 

During  my  trip  to  Bazardjik,  I  visited  an- 
other konak  :  it  belonged  to  Kavanos  Oglou, 
another  of  the  too  famous  Deri-Beys,  who 
had  acquired  complete  control  over  his  part 
of  the  country,  and  who  was  similarly  seized 
by  the  Porte,  despoiled  of  his  possessions, 
and  sent  into  exile.  This  konak  was  an  im- 
mense quadrangular  building,  inclosing  a 
court-yard  with  a  veranda  running  round  it 
supported  on  massive  wooden  pillars.  Upon 
this  veranda  a  hundred  rooms  opened.  The 
house  was  low  and  clumsy  in  appearance, 
but  timber  of  remarkable  size  and  solidity 
had  been  used  in  its  construction. 

At  the  time  of  my  visit  it  was  abandoned  ; 
the  doors  and  windows  had  disappeared, 
giving  to  the  edifice  an  appearance  of  soli- 
tude and  emptiness,  rendered  still  more  dis- 
mal by  the  presence  of  innumerable  bats  and 
owls,  its  only  occupants.  The  old  dungeon, 
with  its  cruel  associations,  could  still  be  trac- 
ed in  a  low  building,  about  thirty  feet  long 


*  "  Valley-lord,"  or  feudal  chiof. 


30 


and  twenty  ■wide,  surrounded  by  a  wall  of 
immense  thickness  and  strongly  roofed.  For 
windows  nothing  was  seen  but  a  few  slits. 
The  interior  on  one  side  was  occupied  by  a 
double  wall,  with  just  enough  space  between 
to  admit  a  person  in  a  standing  position  ;  in 
this  the  offenders  against  the  laws,  and  the 
victims  of  vendetta,  were  squeezed,  secured 
by  heavy  chains  that  hung  at  equal  distances 
from  iron  rings.  A  well,  now  filled  up,  oc- 
cupied the  centre,  into  which  the  heads  of 
decapitated  prisoners  were  thrown,  to  disap- 
pear in  the  dismal  darkness  of  its  depths. 

I  was  not  sorry  to  leave  this  cheerless  scene 
•  of  former  despotism  and  present  decay,  and 
to  turn  my  steps  towards  a  gate  on  the  oppo- 
site side  o  '  the  garden  leading  into  a  kiosk 
more  modern  in  appearance  than  the  house, 
though  bearing  traces  of  decay.  This  last 
refuge  of  a  once  powerful  family  was  occu- 
pied by  Azizie  Hanoum  Effcndi,  the  much- 
respected  widow  of  the  tyrant.  Her  two 
sons,  who  occupied  inferior  positions  under 
Government,  were  absent.  The  descendants 
of  Kavanos  Oglou  continue  to  be  much  re- 
spected in  the  country  in  spite  of  their 
downfall  and  the  confiscation  of  their  prop- 
erty. The  venerable  lady  into  whose  pres- 
ence I  was  ushered  bore,  notwithstanding 
her  advanced  age,  traces  of  a  beauty  that  must 
have  been  perfect  in  its  bloom.  She  was  a 
fine  tall  blonde  of  the  Circassian  type,  of  a 
commanding  appearance,  softener!  by  the 
sweet  dignity  of  fallen  sovereignty,  before 
whom  I  felt  I  could  bow  the  knee  and 
kiss  the  hand  she  graciously  extended  to 
me.  I  had  a  long  and  interesting  conver- 
sation with  her  on  the  state  of  the  country, 
which  she  described  as  having  been  more 
flourishing  under  the  rule  of  her  husband 
than  at  this  time.  "  But,"  said  she,  with  a 
sigh,  "  God  ordains  all  things,  casting  some 
into  misfortunes  and  raising  others  into  pros- 
perity, according  as  Kismet  has  prepared  for 
all.     Allah  Kerim  I ' ' 

Every  one  has  heard  or  read  of  a  kiosk,  the 
indispensable  pleasure-seat  of  a  Turk.  The 
imperial  and  other  kiosks  on  the  Bosphorus 
are  miniature  palaces,  luxuriously  furnished, 
whose  elegance  and  beauty  are  only  equalled 
by  the  incomparable  advantages  of  their  sit- 
uation on  the  richest  of  soils  and  beneath  the 
sunniest  of  skies.  Kiosks  may  be  situated 
anywhere,  and  may  comprise  a  suite  of 
apartments  or  be  limited  to  one  ;  they  are 
light  and  airy  in  style,  generally  commanding 
a  fine  prospect,  often  floored  with  marble, 
and  containing  a  shadravan,  or  sculptured 
fountain,  playing  in  the  midst ;  a  range  of 
sofas  runs  all  round  the  walls,  on  which  the 
Turk  loves  to  sit  for  hours  together  lost  in 
meditation,  and  in  the  fumes  of  his  insepara- 
ble companion  the  nary  tie. 

The  interiors  of  old  kiosks  and  konaks 
used  to  be  ornamented  with  a  peculiar  open 
woodwork  of  arabesque  design  decorating 
the  walls  and  ceilings,  but  this  is  now  com- 
pletely out  of  fashion.  The  ceiling  of  a  house 
I  formerly  inhabited  was  decorated  with  this 
work,  and  attracted  the  attention  of  all  trav- 
ellers. One,  an  Englishman,  was  so  much 
struck  with  it  on  entering  the  room,  that 
hardly  had  he  bowed  to  the  company  before 
he  asked  permission  to  make  a  sketch  of  it. 
We  were  so  accustomed  to  similar  displays 
of  originality  in  British  tourists  that  the  re- 
quest was  at  once  granted. 

A  koula  is  a  high  turret  found  on  every 
large  chiftlik,  or  farm,  and  used  as  a  refuge 
in  case  of  assault  by  brigands  ;  it  is  a  quad- 
rangular edifice,  from  three  to  four  stories 
high  ;  the  lowest  is  used  as  a  granary  and  for 
storing  seeds  and  other  valuable  property  be- 
longing to  the  farm  ;  the  others,  light  and 
airy,  are  reserved  for  the  habitation  of  the 
owner  of  the  chiftliks  during  his  occasional 
visits  to  his  property. 

The  last  stronghold  of  this  description  I 
visitci  1  was  the  property  of  a  British  subject  in 
the  aistrict  of  Salonika.     It  was  solidly  con- 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY 

structed,  with  massive  iron  doors  and  shut- 
ters, and  some  years  ago  resisted  the  assault 
of  a  band  of  brigands  who  besieged  it  for  three 
days,  till  the  arrival  of  a  corps  of  Zaptiehs 
occasioned  their  hasty  disappearance.  The 
marks  of  their  bullets  may  still  be  seen  on 
the  doors  and  shutters,  but  no  further  dam- 
age was  done. 

There  is  no  very  marked  difference  be- 
tween the  quarters  of  the  town  occupied  by 
Christians  and  those  occupied  by  Turks. 
The  Christians'  houses  are  built  very  much 
in  the  same  style,  though  they  are  not  so 
large,  and  open  directly  on  the  street,  with 
shops  in  their  lower  stories  in  the  principal 
thoroughfares.  The  windows  are  free  from 
the  lattices  invariably  seen  in  a  Turkish  ha- 
remlik.  There  is  much  more  life  and  anima- 
tion in  a  Christian  or  Jewish  quarter,  partly 
in  consequence  of  one  house  being  occupied 
by  several  families.  This  is  especially  the 
case  among  the  lower  orders  of  Jews,  where 
one  may  count  as  many  families  as  there  are 
rooms  in  a  house. 

In  most  Eastern  towns  the  Jewish  quar- 
ters, containing  the  fish,  meat,  and  vegetable 
markets,  are  the  most  unclean,  and  conse- 
quently the  most  unhealthy.  Few  sanitary 
regulations  exist,  and  little  attention  is  paid 
to  them  or  to  the  laws  of  hygiene.  The  streets 
are  frequently  nearly  impassable,  and  some 
of  the  dwellings  of  the  poor  are  pestilential, 
the  hotbeds  of  every  epidemic  that  visits  the 
country. 

Most  of  the  ancient  khans,  warehouses, 
and  bazars  at  Stamboul,  and  in  large  provin- 
cial towns,  are  fine  solidly  constructed  edi- 
fices. The  bazars  are  of  a  peculiarly  Oriental 
style  of  architecture,  and  appear  well  adapt- 
ed to  the  use  for  which  they  were  designed — 
the  display  and  sale  of  goods.  In  the  inte- 
rior, however,  many  of  these  bazars  are  neg- 
lected, and  some  left  to  decay  have  been  by 
degrees  abandoned  by  the  tenants  of  the  in- 
numerable shops  they  once  contained. 

The  cluirshi,  or  market-place,  consists  of  an 
incongruous  assemblage  of  shops,  huddled 
together  without  any  attempt  at  architecture 
or  regard  to  appearances  ;  for  the  most  part 
protected  only  by  large  shutters  that  are 
raised  in  the  morning  and  lowered  at  night. 
A  low  platform  of  boards  occupies  the  greater 
part  of  the  interior,  in  the  front  corner  of 
which  the  shopkeeper  sits  on  a  little  carpet, 
cross-legged,  with  a  wooden  safe  by  his  side 
and  his  account-book  and  pipe  within  easy 
reach,  ever  ready  to  attend  to  the  wants  of 
his  customers.  Kows  of  shelves,  construct- 
ed in  recesses  in  the  walls,  serve  as  recepta- 
cles for  his  goods. 

The  khans,  or  warehouses,,  in  towns  are 
used  as  deposits  for  merchandise  and  for  the 
transaction  of  business  by  merchants  and 
bankers  who  have  offices  in  them.  A  series 
of  hostelries  of  all  descriptions  and  dimen- 
sions, also  called  khans,  some  built  of  stone 
and  others  of  timber,  exist  in  large  numbers 
in  all  parts  of  the  country,  serving  as  hotels 
to  travellers  and  store-rooms  for  merchan- 
dise during  transit.  The  ruins  of  the  most 
ancient  of  these,  built  by  the  Turks  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest,  and  used  by  them  as 
blockhouses,  still  exist  on  the  main  roads  and 
in  some  of  the  principal  towns.  By  the  side 
of  these  substantial  stone  buildings  have 
arisen  a  number  of  miserable  edifices  digni- 
fied with  the  name  of  khan,  with  whose  dis- 
comforts the  weary  traveller  too  often  makes 
sad  acquaintance. 

The  furniture  of  wealthy  Greek  houses  in 
Constantinople  is  European  ;  in  those  of  Jews 
and  Armenians  of  high  position  it  is  a  com- 
promise between  European  and  Turkish.  All 
Orientals  are  fond  of  display  ;  they  like  to 
build  large  houses  and  ornament  their  recep- 
tion rooms  in  a  gaudy  manner  ;  but  the  en- 
semble lacks  finish  and  comfort.     At  A I 

had  fixed  upon  an  old  Turkish  konak  as  my 
residence  ;  but  on  coming  to  inhabit  it  I  dis- 
covered that  extensive  alterations  and  im- 
provements   must    be    made    before   it  ap. 


proached  in  the  remotest  degree  to  my  idea 
of  an  English  home.  Some  officious  person, 
at  a  loss  to  understand  the  object  of  these 
changes,  gave  notice  to  the  proprietor  that 
his  tenant  was  fast  demolishing  his  house, 
upon  which  the  good  old  Turk  asked  if  she 
were  building  it  up  again,  and  being  an- 
swered in  the  affirmative,  quietly  said, 
"  Brakyupsen!"  (laissezfuirr .') 

The  furniture  found  in  the  dwellings  of  all 
the  lower  classes  is  much  the  same  through- 
out the  country  ;  a  Turkish  sofa,  a  few  deal 
chairs,  and  a  table  serving  for  every  purpose. 
The  bedding  is  placed  on  the  floor  at  night 
and  removed  in  the  morning.  But  if  furni- 
ture is  scanty,  there  is  no  lack  of  carpets  and 
copper  kitchen  utensils,  both  being  consid- 
ered good  investments  by  the  poor. 

Before  concluding  this  chapter  I  must  not 
forget  to  describe  one  of  the  most  necessary 
adjuncts  to  a  Turkish  house — the  bath.  In 
a  large  house,  or  konak,  this  is  by  far  the  best 
fitted  and  most  useful  part  of  the  whole  estab- 
lishment. A  Turkish  bath  comprises  a  suite 
of  three  rooms  ;  the  first — the  ham-mam — is  a 
square  apartment  chiefly  constructed  of  mar- 
ble, and  terminating  in  a  kind  of  cupola 
studded  with  a  number  of  glass  bells,  through 
which  the  light  enters.  A  deep  reservoir, 
attached  to  the  outer  wall,  with  an  opening 
into  the  bath,  contains  the  water,  half  of 
which  is  heated  by  a  furnace  built  under  it. 
A  number  of  pipes,  attached  to  the  furnace, 
circulate  through  the  walls  of  the  bath  and 
throw  great  heat  into  it.  One  or  two  grace- 
ful fountains  conduct  the  water  from  the  re- 
servoir, and  on  each  side  of  the  fountain  is  a 
low  wooden  platform  which  serves  as  a  seat 
for  the  bather,  who  sits  cross-legged,  and  un- 
dergoes a  long  and  complicated  process  of 
washing  and  scrubbing,  with  a  variety  of 
other  toilet  arrangements  too  numerous  to 
mention. 

The  second  room,  called  the  saoukUmk,  is 
constructed  very  much  in  the  same  style  as 
the  first,  but  is  smaller,  and  has  no  furniture 
but  a  marble  platform  upon  which  mattresses 
and  cushions  are  placed  for  the  use  of  those 
who  wish  to  repose  between  intervals  of  bath- 
ing, or  do  not  wisli  to  face  the  cooler  tempera- 
ture of  the  hammam  oda.  This  room  is  fur- 
nished with  sofas,  on  which  the  bathers  rest 
and  dress  after  quitting  the  bath. 

Turkish  women  are  very  fond  of  their 
bath,  and  are  capable  of  remaining  for  hours 
together  in  that  hot  and  depressing  atmos- 
phere. They  smoke  cigarettes,  eat  fruits  and 
sweets,  and  drink  sherbet,  and  finally,  after 
all  the  blood  has  rushed  to  their  heads,  and 
their  faces  are  crimson,  they  wrap  themselves 
in  soft  burnouses,  and  pass  into  the  third  or 
outer  chamber,  where  they  repose  on  a  luxuri- 
ous couch  until  their  system  shakes  off  part  of 
the  heat  and  languor  that  the  abuse  of  these 
baths  invariably  produces.  A  bath  being  an 
indispensable  appendage  to  every  house,  one 
is  to  be  found  in  even  the  poorest  Turkish 
dwelling.  Some  more  or  less  resemble  a  reg- 
ular hammam,  others  are  of  a  very  simple 
form — often  a  tiny  cabinet  attached  to  one  of 
the  rooms,  containing  a  bottomless  jar  buried 
in  the  ground,  through  which  the  water  runs. 
I  consider  these  little  baths,  which  are  neither 
expensive  nor  require  much  space,  excellent 
institutions  in  the -houses  of  the  poor  as  in- 
struments of  cleanliness.  The  constant  and 
careful  ablutions  of  the  Turk  are  the  prin- 
cipal preventives  to  many  diseases,  from 
which  they  are,  comparatively  speaking, 
freer  than  most  nations. 

The  public  baths,  resorted  to  by  all  classes, 
are  to  be  found  in  numbers  in  every  town. 
They  are  fine  buildings,  exact  copies  of  the 
old  lloman  baths,  many  of  which  are  still  in 
existence,  defying  the  march  of  centuries 
and  the  work  of  decay.  Like  the  home 
baths,  they  consist  of  three  spacious  apart- 
ments. The  outer  bath-room  is  a  large  stone 
building  lighted  by  a  cupola,  with  wooden 
platforms  running  all  round,  upon  which 
small  mattresses  and  couches  are  spread  for 


THE   PEOPLE   OP   TURKEY. 


31 


the  men  ;  but  the  women,  not  having  the 
same  privilege,  are  obliged  to  bring  their  own 
rugs,  upon  which  they  deposit  their  clothes, 
tied  up  in  bundles,  when  they  enter,  and  re- 
pose and  dress  upon  them  on  coming  out  of 
the  bath.  A  fountain  of  eold  water  is  con- 
sidered indispensable  in  this  apartment,  and 
in  the  basin  surrounding  it  may  be  seen  wa- 
ter-melons floating  about,  placed  there  to  cool 
while  their  owners  are  in  the  inner  bath. 

The  bath  itself  contains  a  number  of  small 
rooms,  each  of  which  can  be  separately  en- 
gaged by  a  party,  or  used  in  common  with 
the  other  bathers.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
the  baths  used  by  men  are  either  separate  or 
are  open  at  different  hours. 

Turkish  women,  independently  of  their 
home  baths,  must  resort  at  least  once  a  month 
to  the  public  hamrnam.  They  like  it  for 
many  reasons,  but  principally  because  it  is 
the  only  place  where  they  can  meet  to  chat 
over  the  news  of  the  day  and  their  family 
affairs. 

Some  of  these  baths,  especially  the  mineral 
ones  at  Broussa,  are  of  the  finest  descrip- 
tion. Gurgutly,  containing  the  sulphureous 
springs,  is  renowned  for  the  remarkable  effi- 
cacy of  its  waters,  its  immense  size,  and  the 
elegant  and  curious  style  of  its  architecture. 
It  comprises  two  very  large  apartments,  one 
for  the  use  of  the  bathers  previous  to  their 
entering  the  bath,  the  other  the  bath  itself. 
This  is  an  immense  room,  with  niches  all 
round  containing  fountains  in  the  form  of 
shells,  which  receive  part  of  the  running 
stream  ;  in  front  of  these  are  wooden  plat- 
forms, on  which  the  bathers  collect  for  the 
purpose  of  washing  their  heads  and  scrub- 
bing their  bodies.  On  the  left,  as  you  enter, 
stands  an  immense  marble  basin,  seven  feet 
in  length  and  three  in  width,  into  which  the 
mother  stream  gushes  with  impetuous  force. 
From  this  it  runs  into  a  large  round  basin 
about  ten  feet  in  depth,  in  which  dozens  of 
women  and  children  may  be  seen  swimming, 
an  exhausting  process,  owing  to  the  high 
temperature  of  the  water  and  its  sulphureous 
qualities.  This  wonderful  basin  is  in  the 
shape  of  a  reversed  dome,  sunk  into  the  mar- 
ble floor,  which  is  supported  underneath  by 
massive  columns. 

Coffee-houses  are  to  be  met  with  every- 
where, and  are  very  numerous  in  the  towns. 
The  Turks  resort  to  them  when  they  leave 
their  homes  early  in  the  morning,  to  take  a 
cup  of  coffee  and  smoke  a  nargile  before  go- 
ing to  business.  In  the  evening,  too,  they 
step  in  to  have  a  chat  with  their  neighbors 
and  hear  the  news  of  the  day.  Turkish  news- 
papers have  become  pretty  common  of  late 
in  these  quiet  rendezvous,  and  are  to  be 
found  in  the  most  unpretending  ones.  Few 
of  these  establishments  possess  an  inviting 
exterior  or  can  boast  any  arrangements  with 
regard  to  comfort  or  accommodation  ;  a  few 
mats  placed  upon  benches,  and  a  number  of 
common  osier-seated  chairs  and  stools,  are 
the  seats  afforded  in  them.  Small  gardens 
may  be  found  attached  to  some,  while  others 
atone  for  the  deficiencies  of  their  interiors  by 
the  lovely  situations  they  occupy  in  this  pic- 
turesque and  luxurious  land. 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE  SERAGLIO. 

The  Chain  of  Palaces  along  the  Bosphoms— Eski 
Serai,  the  oldest  of  the  Seraglios — Its  Site  and  Ap- 
pearance—Bfauty  of  its  Gardens — Contrasts— Its  De- 
struction— Dolma-Bagche  and  Begler-Bey— Enormous 
Expenditure  of  Abdul-Medjid  and  Abdul-Aziz  on 
Seraglios—  Yahlis,  or  Villas— Begler-Bey  furnished 
for  Illustrious  Guests— Delicate  Attentions  of  the 
Sultan— Furniture  of  Seraglios— Mania  of  Abdul-Aziz 
— Everything  Inflammable  thrown  into  the  Bosphoms 
— Pleasure  Grounds— Interior  Divisions  of  the  Seraglio 
— The  Mabeyn — The  Padishah  en,  neglige1— Imperial 
Expenditure— Servants,  etc.— Food— Wages— Stables 
— Fine  Art— Origin  of  the  Inmates  of  the  Seraglio— 
Their  Training — Adjemis— A  Training-School  for  the 
Seraglio— Banks  in  the  Seraglio— The  Bush.  Kadtn 
Effendi  and  other  Wives— llanoums,  or  Odalisks— 
Favorites— Equal  Chances  of  Good  Fortune— Cere- 
monies attending  the  Sultan's  Selection  of  an  Odalisk 
—A  Slave  seldom  sees  the  Sultan  more  than  once- 
Consequent  Loss  of  Dignity  and  Misery  for  the  rest  of 


her  Life— Precarious  Position  of  Imperial  Favorites 
— Intrigues  and  Cahals  in  the  Seraglio— Good  Fortune 
of  the  Odalisk  who  bears  a  Child— Fashions  in  Beauty 
—Golden  Hair — The  Vahdi  Sultana — The  Bamadar 
Ousta— Ignorance  and  Vice  of  the  Seraglio  Women — 
—  The  Better  Class— The  Consumptive  Class — The 
"Wild  Serailis'1 — Amusements  of  the  Seraglio — The- 
atre— Ballet— Shopping— Garden  Parties  in  Abdul- 
Medjid's  Time — Imperial  Children — Foster-Brothers 
—Bad  Training  and  Deficient  Education  of  Turkish 
Princes  and  Princesses. 

Tiiere  are  more  than  twenty  Imperial  Pal- 
aces, variously  named,  according  to  their 
size  and  character,  seraglios,  yahlis,  and  ki- 
osks, scattered  about  Constantinople,  some 
on  the  Bosphorus,  others  inland,  but  all 
equally  to  be  admired  as  striking  spectacles 
of  Eastern  magnificence.  Dolma-Bagche 
and  Beshiktash,  linked  with  other  mansions 
and  kiosks,  mingling  European  architecture 
with  Oriental  decoration,  form  a  chain  of 
splendid  palaces  such  as  can  be  seen  nowhere 
but  on  the  historic  shores  of  the  Bosphoms. 

The  most  renowned  of  the  Ottoman  pal- 
aces was  Eski  Serai,  on  the  point  of  land 
where  the  Bosphorus  enters  the  Sea  ot.  Mar- 
mora. Built  on  the  site  of  old  Byzantium 
by  Mehemet  II. ,  this  celebrated  palace  was 
enlarged  and  beautified  according  to  the 
wants  and  caprices  of  each  succeasive  sul- 
tan. It  presented  to  the  eye  a  crowded  pile 
of  vast  irresrular  buildings,  crowned  by  gilded 
cupolas  and  girt  with  shaded  gardens.  Beau- 
tiful mosques,  varied  with  hospitals  and  other 
charitable  foundations,  were  scattered  about 
in  detached  groups,  amid  clusters  of  stately 
cypresses  and  the  burial-grounds  of  kings. 
Here  might  be  seen  a  gorgeous  pavilion,  there 
a  cool  jet,  here  again  a  mysterious  building 
with  high  impenetrable  walls  and  latticed 
windows,  the  monotonous  dwelling-place  of 
bright  young  creatures  who,  once  engaged, 
were  rarely  permitted  to  regain  their  free- 
dom. And  there,  dwarfing  all  else,  rose  the 
tall  white  minarets,  accenting  their  clear  out- 
lines against  the  tender  sky  of  the  East.  In 
this  irregular  confusion  the  artist  saw  one  of 
the  choicest  sights  of  the  capital ;  and  a 
closer  view  offered  to  the  curious  a  clear  and 
minute  conception  of  the  palace  of  an  East- 
ern despot. 

All  was  there :  the  gorgeous  and  the 
squalid,  the  refined  and  the  loathsome,  the 
splendid  state  rooms  of  the  Vicar  of  God, 
beside  the  gloomy  cages  of  those  unhappy 
princes,  who,  cursed  by  their  royal  blood, 
were  left  to  pine  in  solitude  until  death 
came  to  settle  accounts  between  them  and 
the  tyrants  who  had  doomed  them  to  their 
chains.  There  were  the  charitable  establish- 
ments whence  the  poor  never  turned  away 
unrefreshed,— and  there  the  dungeon  where 
the  powerful  were  left  to  starve  and  die. 
There  was  the  gilded  kiosk  where  the  Padi- 
shah smoked  his  chibouk  and  issued  his  de- 
crees,— whose  terrible  ordinances  were  car- 
ried out  in  the  adjoining  chamber-of -blood. 
Beyond  were  the  mausoleums  of  his  race,  lift- 
ing up  their  rich  adornment  in  the  chill  beau- 
ty of  the  city  of  the  dead — severed  by  a  little 
space  from  the  scarcely  more  splendid  dwell- 
ings of  the  living.  There  lay  those  doomed 
princes  to  whom  a  life  without  liberty  and 
ofttimes  a  cruel  death  were  ill  balanced  by 
the  useless  splendor  of  their  tombs.  ' '  What 
is  the  use  of  thy  getting  children,"  once  with 
a  mother's  bitterness  said  a  Circassian  slave 
who  had  borne  a  son  to  one  of  the  sultans, 
"  when  they  are  only  destined  to  people  the 
tombs?" 

In  later  times  Eski  Serai  was  abandoned  to 
the  use  of  the  harems  of  deceased  sultans,  who 
were  sometimes  shut  up  there  for  life.  Its 
last  occupants,  the  multitudes  of  wives, 
slaves,  and  odalisks  belonging  once  to  Sultan 
Abdul-Medjid,  unable  any  longer  to  endure 
its  dismal  solitude,  are  reported  to  have  set  it 
on  fire  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  dwelling 
more  congenial  to  the  habits  of  comparative 
liberty  they  had  acquired.  At  all  events  the 
palace  was  destroyed,  and  a  vast  number  of 
valuable  and  rare  objects  perished  with  it. 
The  site  is  now  occupied  by  gardens,  and  a 


railroad  runs  across  it ;  the  gem  of  the  Gold- 
en Horn  has  vanished. 

Dolma-Bagche,  built  by  Sultan  Mahmoud 
II.,  was  a  large  wooden  edifice.  This  and 
Begler-Bey  became  the  usual  winter  and  sum- 
mer residences  of  the  imperial  family.  Sultan 
Abdul-Medjid,  on  coming  to  power,  rebuilt 
Dolma-Bagche  and  several  other  kiosks  and 
seraglios.  Gentle,  sensitive,  refined,  and  loth 
to  shed  blood,  he  is  said  to  have  evinced  a  su- 
perstitious aversion  to  the  old  imperial  pal- 
aces whose  splendor  was  tainted  by  the  mem- 
ory of  the  crimes  of  his  ancestors.  He,  and 
still  more  his  brother  Adbul-Aziz,  spent  in- 
calculable sums  in  the  erection  and  decora- 
tion of  seraglios.  The  latter's  yearly  ex 
penses  on  this  alone  were  reckoned  to  have 
exceeded  £580,000 — one  of  the  items  which 
ran  away  with  the  money  which  trusting  or 
speculative  capitalists  of  Europe  had  been 
foolish  enough  to  supply  for  the  future  ben- 
efit and  improvement  of  Turkey  (not,  of 
course,  forgetting  a  slice  in  the  pie  for  them- 
selves), but  which  has  fallen  somewhat  short 
of  the  end  for  which  it  was  designed  :  Turk- 
ish bondholders  do  not  seem  to  consider 
themselves  of  all  men  the  most  fortunate, 
and  Turkey  itself  has  not  gained  by  loading 
its  exchequer  with  a  mountain  of  debt  for 
the  sake  of  the  reckless  extravagance  of  im- 
perial luxury. 

Holding  a  middle  place  between  the  great 
palaces  and  the  kiosks,  the  sultans  of  Turkey 
possess  yahlis,  or  villas,  not  less  beautiful  than 
the  mansions  of  greater  pretensions.  These 
villas  often  rise  on  the  shores  of  the  Bospho- 
rus from  a  bed  of  verdure.  Generally  they 
are  closed  and  silent,  with  a  solitary  guard 
standing  sentinel  at  the  gate  ;  but  every  now 
and  then  one  of  them  may  be  seen  lighted 
up,  as  by  magic,  and  teeming  with  life,  with 
the  rumbling  of  carriages  to  and  fro,  and  the 
clashing  of  arms.  At  the  sound  of  the  trum- 
pet a  strain  of  sweet  music  strikes  up,  and 
the  approach  of  a  water-procession  of  caiques 
swiftly  gliding  towards  the  gates  announces 
the  arrival  of  the  august  master. 

Sometimes  the  sultan  goes  alone  to  spend 
a  few  hours  of  ddce  far  nienle  ;  at  others  he 
makes  an  appointment  with  some  special  fa- 
vorite to  meet  him  there.  Abdul -Medjid'a 
known  partiality  for  Bessime  Sultana,  the 
most  worthless  but  most  beloved  of  his 
wives,  induced  him  on  one  occasion,  while 
on  a  visit  to  his  Yahh  at  the  sweet  waters  of 
Asia,  to  send  his  own  yacht  for  her  in  the 
dead  of  night,  alarming  the  whole  seraglio  by 
its  unexpected,  appearance  at  so  unusual  an 
hour. 

One  of  the  three  palaces  most  renowned 
for  beauty  of  architecture  and  magnificence 
of  furniture  is  Begler-Bey.  It  is  worthy  of 
the  use  for  which  it  has  been  selected,  of  be- 
ing the  palace  offered  for  the  occupation  of 
illustrious  foreign  visitors.  The  arrange- 
ments made  in  it  for  one  imperial  guest  were 
presided  over  by  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz  in  per- 
son, and  the  private  apartments  of  the  illus- 
trious lady  were  perfect  copies  of  those  in 
her  own  palace.  The  fastidiousness  of  the 
host  on  this  occasion  was  so  great,  that  on 
discovering  that  the  tints  on  the  walls  and 
furniture  slightly  differed  from  those  he  had 
seen  when  on  his  European  tour,  he  ordered 
that  everything  should  be  removed  and  new 
ones  brought  from  Paris.  The  fair  visitor  is 
said  to  have  been  equally  surprised  and  flat- 
tered by  the  delicate  attention  that  had  not 
omitted  even  the  smallest  object  of  her  toi- 
lette table.  The  Sultan,  in  truly  Oriental 
fashion,  caused  a  new  pair  of  magnificent 
slippers,  embroidered  with  pearls  and  pre- 
cious stones,  to  be  placed  before  her  bed 
every  morning. 

Since  the  time  of  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid,  the 
furniture  of  the  imperial  palaces  and  kiosks 
has  been  made  to  order  in  Europe.  It  is  of  so 
costly  a  description  as  to  be  equal  in  value  to 
the  edifices  themselves.  On  entering  Tcher- 
agan,  and  some  of  the  other  serails,  the  eye 
is  dazzled  by  the  gilt  decorations,  gold  and 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


silver  brocades,  splendid  mirrors  and  chande- 
liers, and  carved  and  inlaid  furniture  they 
contain.  In  Abdul-Medjid's  time,  clocks 
and  china  vases  were  the  only  ornaments  of 
the  apartments.  The  absence  of  pictures, 
books,  and  the  thousand  different  objects 
with  which  Europeans  fill  their  houses  gave 
the  rooms,  even  when  inhabited,  a  comfort- 
less and  unused  appearance. 

Some  years  ago,  when  visiting  the  private 
apartments  of  this  Sultan,  I  noticed  a  splen- 
did antique  vase.  Lately,  on  speaking  of 
this  priceless  object  to  a  seraglio  lady,  I  was 
informed  that  it  had  been  thrown  into  the 
Bosphoms  by  order  of  its  owner.  This  act 
of  imperial  extravagance  was  caused  by  the 
supposition  that  the  vase  had  been  handled 
by  some  person  afflicted  with  consumption. 

Sultan  Abdul-Aziz,  a  year  or  two  before 
his  dethronement,  possessed  with  a  nervous 
terror  of  fire,  caused  all  inflammable  articles 
to  be  taken  out  of  the  palaces,  and  replace 
them  by  articles  manufactured  of  iron.  The 
stores  of  fuel  were  cast  into  the  Bosphorus, 
and  the  lights  of  the  Sultan's  apartments 
were  placed  in  basins  of  water.  The  houses 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Seraglio  were 
purchased  by  the  Sultan,  their  occupants 
forced  to  quit  at  a  very  short  notice,  their 
furniture  turned  out,  and  the  buildings  pulled 
down  at  once.  These  tyrannical  precautions 
served  to  heighten  the  general  discontent  of 
the  capital  against  the  Padishah  especially 
among  the  poor,  who  justly  complained  that 
they  might  have  benefited  by  what  had  been 
wasted  ;  while  some  of  the  wealthy,  though 
not  more  contented,  profited  by  the  freak, 
and  carried  off  many  of  the  rich  objects  taken 
out  of  the  palace. 

The  vast  pleasure-grounds  attached  to  the 
seraglios  are  laid  out  with  a  tasteful  care, 
which,  added  to  the  beauty  of  the  position 
and  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  goes  far  to  justify 
the  renown  of  the  gardens  of  the  Bosphorus. 
The  hills,  valleys,  and  gorges  that  surround 
them  are  covered  with  woods  ;  here  orchards 
and  vineyards,  weighed  down  with  their  rich 
burdens,  lend  color  to  the  scene  ;  there  the 
slopes  are  laid  out  in  terraces,  whose  perpen- 
dicular sides  are  clothed  with  the  contrasted 
shades  of  the  sombre  ivy-leaf  and  the  bright 
foliage  of  the  Virginian  creeper.  Banks  of 
flowers  carry  the  thoughts  back  to  the  hang- 
ing gardens  of  Babylon.  Nature  and  art 
have  ornamented  these  delightful  spots  with 
lakes,  fountains,  cascades,  aviaries,  menag- 
eries, and  pavilions.  "  Here  in  cool  grot" 
every  opportunity  is  offered  for  love-mak- 
ing, and  if  this  one  is  already  engaged,  there 
are  highly  romantic  nooks,  concealed  by 
overhanging  boughs,  that  will  answer  the 
purpose  as  well.  Trees  and  plants  seem  to 
rejoice  in  the  bright  sunshine  ;  the  birds' 
songs  mingle  strangely  with  the  roar  of  the 
wild  beasts  from  which  the  Sultan  is  perhaps 
trying  to  learn  a  lesson  of  humanity  ;  and 
gorgeous  butterflies  hover  round,  kissing  the 
sweet  blossoms  that  fill  the  air  with  their 
fragrance.  Here  the  ladies  of  the  harem, 
when  permitted  to  escape  for  a  time  from 
their  cages,  roam  at  liberty  like  a  troop  of 
school -girls  during  recreation  hours,  some 
making  for  the  orchards,  others  dispersing  in 
the  vineyards,  with  screams  of  laughter  and 
wild  frolic  that  would  astonish  considerably 
any  European  garden  party.  The  conserva- 
tories and  flower  beds  suffer  terribly  during 
these  incursions,  and  great  is  the  despair  of 
the  head-gardener.* 

A  Seraglio,  like  all  Moslem  dwellings,  is 
divided  into  Haremlik  and  Selamlik.  The 
former  is  reserved  for  the  family  life  of  the 
Sultan  and  his  women  ;  the  latter  is  accessi- 
ble to  officials  who  come  to  transact  state 
business  with  his  Highness.  The  Mabeyn 
consists  of  a  number  of  rooms  between  the 
two  great  divisions,  and  may  be  considered 
the  private  home  of  the  Sultan.  It  is  here  that 

*  Generally  a  European,  who  often  attains  to  high 
rank  and  fortune. 


the  Padishah  resorts  between  nine  and  ten  in 
the  morning,  attired  in  his  gedjlik,  or  morn- 
ing neglige  ;  consisting  of  a  tekke,  or  white 
skull-cap  ;  a  bright-colored  intern  (dressing- 
gown)  and  eicMon  (trousers)  of  similar  mate- 
rial ;  a  pair  of  room}-  ierliks  (slippers),  a  kirka 
(quilted  jacket),  or  a  kirk  (pelisse  lined  with 
fur),  according  to  the  season. 

Thus  attired,  he  resorts  to  his  study  and 
gives  his  attention  to  state  affairs,  or  to  any 
other  occupations  that  suit  his  tastes  and  in- 
clinations. Close  by  are  the  apartments 
where  the  gentlemen  of  the  household,  the 
private  secretaries,  and  other  functionaries, 
await  their  Imperial  Master  from  sunrise. 

An  account  I  recently  saw  of  the  Imperial 
expenditure  estimated  the  annual  outlay  of 
Sultan  Abdul-Aziz  at  £2,000,000.  The  Pal- 
ace contained  5500  servants  of  both  sexes. 
The  kitchens  alone  required  300  function- 
aries, and  the  stables  400.  There  were  also 
about  400  cai'kjis,  or  boatmen,  400  musicians, 
and  200  attendants  who  had  the  charge  of 
the  menageries  and  aviaries.  Three  hundred 
guards  were  employed  for  the  various  palaces 
and  kiosks,  and  about  100  porters.  The 
harem,  besides  this,  contained  1200  female 
slaves. 

In  the  Selamik  might  be  counted  from 
1000  to  1300  servants  of  different  kinds.  The 
Sultan  had  twenty-five  "  aides-de-camp,"  sev- 
en chamberlains,  six  secretaries,  and  at  least 
150  other  functionaries,  divided  into  classes, 
each  having  its  special  employment. 

One  is  intrusted  with  the  care  of  the  Im- 
perial wardrobe,  another  with  the  pantry, 
a  third  with  the  making  and  serving  of  the 
coffee,  and  a  fourth  with  the  pipes  and  cigar- 
ettes. 

There  were  also  numberless  attendants 
who  carried  either  a  torch,  or  a  jug  of  per- 
fumed water  for  ablutions  after  a  repast. 
There  is  a  chief  barber,  a  superior  attendant 
who  has  special  charge  of  the  games  of  back- 
gammon and  draughts,  another  superintends 
the  braziers,  and  there  are  at  least  fifty  ka- 
vasses,  and  one  hundred  eunuchs  ;  and  the 
harem  has  also  at  its  service  a  hundred  ser- 
vants for  going  on  errands  and  doing  com- 
missions in  Stamboul  and  Pera. 

Altogether,  the  total  number  of  the  em- 
ployes of  the  Palace  is  about  5500.  But  this 
is  not  all  ;  these  servants  employ  also  other 
persons  beneath  them,  so  that  every  day  7000 
persons  are  fed  at  the  expense  of  the  Palace. 
So  great  is  the  disorder  in  the  organization 
that  the  contractors  claim  five  francs  per 
diem  for  the  food  of  each  of  these  7000  per- 
sons, which  amounts  to  £511,000  per  annum 
for  the  employes  only. 

The  various  items  comprise  £1120  for 
wood,  £1040  for  rice,  and  £16,000  for  sugar. 

The  wages  of  employes  included  in  the 
civil  list  amounted  to  a  total  of  £200,000, 
exclusive  of  the  salaries  of  aides-de-camp, 
doctors,  musicians,  etc.,  which  were  paid  by 
the  minister  of  war. 

The  stables  of  the  Palace  contained  600 
horses,  whose  provender,  according  to  the 
estimates  of  the  most  reasonable  contractors, 
cost  three  Turkish  liras  per  month,  making  a 
total  of  about£20,000. 

More  than  200  carriages  of  every  descrip- 
tion were  kept  in  the  palace.  These  were 
for  the  most  part  presents  from  the  Viceroy 
of  Egpyt,  but  the  expenses  of  the  150  coach- 
men and  footmen  with  their  rich  liveries  are 
paid  by  a  civil  list,  also  the  harness-maker's 
accounts,  and  other  items  of  this  department. 

The  annual  expenditure  for  pictures,  por- 
celain, etc.,  was  never  less  than  £140,000, 
and  in  one  year  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz  spent 
£120,000  for  pictures  only.  As  for  jewels, 
the  purchases  attained  the  annual  sum  of 
£100,000,  and  the  expenses  of  the  harem  for 
presents,  dresses,  etc.,  absorbed  £160,000  per 
annum. 

Besides  these  items,  the  allowances  to  the 
mother  and  sisters  of  the  Sultan,  to  Ins  neph- 
ews and  nieces,  and  to  the  heir-apparent, 
amounted  to  £181,760.     This  gives  a  total  of 


at  least  £1,300,000  annually.  To  this  must 
be  added  £80,000  for  keeping  in  repair  the 
existing  Imperial  kiosks  and  palaces,  and 
£580,000  for  the  construction  of  new  ones. 
The  Imperial  revenue  in  the  civil  list  was 
£1,280,000.  The  expenditure  was  really 
over  £2,000,000. 

I  am  unable  to  give  an  estimate  of  the  ex- 
penses of  the  seraglio  of  the  present  Sultan, 
but  I  have  been  informed  on  good  authority 
that  his  Majesty  personally  superintends  the 
management  of  the  palace,  and  regulates  its 
expenditure  with  great  wisdom  and  economy ; 
it  will  take  some  time,  however,  to  put  an  end 
to  the  disorder,  corruption,  and  Irregularity 
that  have  become  so  rooted  in  the  whole  sys- 
tem, and  caused  the  extravagance  and  waste 
that  prevailed  in  the  households  of  former 
sultans.  A  Turkish  proverb  says,  "  Baluk 
bashtan  kokar,"  "  The  fish  begins  to  decom- 
pose at  the  head  ;"  accordingly,  if  the  head 
be  sound  there  is  every  hope  that  the  body 
will  also  keep  fresh. 

The  haremlik  of  the  Seraglio  contains  from 
1000  to  1500  women,  divided  among  the 
Sultan's  household  ;  that  of  his  mother,  the 
Valide  Sultana  ;  and  those  of  the  princes. 

This  vast  host  of  women  of  all  ranks,  ages, 
and  conditions  are,  without  exception,  of 
slave  extraction,  originating  from  the  car- 
goes of  slaves  that  yearly  find  their  way  to 
Turkey  from  Circassia,  Georgia,  Abyssinia, 
and  Arabia,  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  of  the 
slave-trade.  These  slaves  are  sold  in  their 
native  land  by  unnatural  relations,  or  torn 
from  their  homes  by  hostile  tribes,  to  be  sub- 
sequently handed  over  to  the  slave-dealers, 
and  brought  by  them  into  the  capital  and 
other  large  towns.  All  these  women  are  the 
offspring  of  semi-barbarous  parents,  who  sel- 
dom scruple  to  sell  their  own  flesh  and  blood. 
Born  in  the  hovel  of  the  peasant  or  the  hut 
of  the  fierce  chieftain,  their  first  condition  is 
one  of  extreme  ignorance  and  barbarism. 
Possessed  with  the  knowledge  of  no  written 
language,  with  a  confused  idea  of  religion 
mixed  up  with  the  superstitious  practices 
that  ignorance  engenders  ;  poorly  clad,  por- 
tionless, and  unprotected,  they  are  drawn 
into  the  seraglio  by  chains  of  bondage,  and 
go  under  the  denomination  of  Adjemis  (rus- 
tics). No  matter  how  low  had  been  their  start- 
ing-point, their  future  career  depends  solely 
upon  their  own  good  fortune.  Their  train- 
ing in  the  seraglio  is  regulated  by  the  voca- 
tions for  which  they  are  destined  ;  those 
chosen  to  fulfil  domestic  positions,  such  as 
negresses  and  others  not  highly  favored  by 
nature,  are  put  under  the  direction  of  kalfas, 
or  head-servants,  and  taught  their  respective 
duties. 

The  training  they  receive  depends  upon 
the  career  to  which  their  age,  personal  at- 
tractions, and  color  entitle  them.  The 
young  and  beautiful,  whose  lot  has  a  great 
chance  of  being  connected  with  that  of  his 
Imperial  Majesty,  or  some  high  dignitary  to 
whom  she  may  be  presented  by  the  Valide 
or  the  Sultan  as  odalisk  or  wife,  receives  a 
veneer  composed  of  the  formalities  of  Turk- 
ish etiquette,  elegance  of  deportment,  the  art 
of  beautifying  the  person,  dancing,  singing, 
or  playing  on  some  musical  instrument.  To 
the  young  and  willing,  instruction  in  the 
rudiments  of  the  Turkish  language  is  given  ; 
they  are  also  initiated  in  the  simpler  forms  of 
Mohammedanism  taught  to  women,  such  as 
the  Nittom  and  other  prayers  and  the  observ- 
ance of  the  fasts  and  feasts.  Most  of  them 
are,  however,  left  to  pick  up  the  language  as 
best  they  can,  and  for  this  they  display  great 
aptitude,  and  often  succeed  in  speaking  Turk- 
ish with  a  certain  amount  of  eloquence,  al- 
though their  native  accent  is  never  lost,  and 
the  extraction  of  a  seraili  can  always  be  dis- 
covered by  her  particular  accent.  Many  of 
these  women  possess  great  natural  talent,  and 
if  favored  with  some  education,  and  endowed 
with  a  natural  elegance,  become  very  tolera- 
ble specimens  of  the  fair  sex. 

All  the  seraglio  inmates,  on  their  entrance 


THE   PEOPLE  OP  TURKEY. 


33 


to  the  imperial  abode,  do  not  belong  to  this 
class  of  Adjemis ;  many  of  them  have  been 
previously  purchased  by  Turkish  hanoums  of 
high  station,  who.  from  speculative  or  other 
motives,  give  them  the  training  described, 
and  when  sufficiently  polished  sell  them  at 
high  prices,  or  present  them  to  the  seraglio 
with  the  view  to  some  object. 

An  ex-seraili  of  my  acquaintance  had  her- 
self undertaken  this  task  and  had  offered  as 
many  as  fourteen  young  girls  to  the  seraglio 
of  Abdul-Aziz,  after  having  reared  each  for 
the  duties  that  would  probably  devolve  upon 
her.  This  lady  said  to  me,  "  What  other 
gift  from  a  humble  creature  like  myself  could 
be  acceptable  to  so  great  a  personage  as  his 
Imperial  .Majesty?"  At  the  time  this  con- 
versation took  place  she  had  a  fresh  batch  of 
young  slaves  in  hand.  They  were  all  smart- 
looking  girls,  designated  by  fancy  names 
such  as  Amore,  Fidele,  Rossiguole.  Beaute, 
etc.  Their  dress  was  rich,  but  ludicrous  in 
the  extreme,  being  composed  of  cast-off 
seraglio  finery  of  all  the  colors  of  the  rain- 
bow ;  some  children  were  even  dressed  in 
the  Turkish  military  uniform,  which  con- 
trasted strangely  with  the  plaits  of  their  long 
thick  hair  tied  up  with  cotton  rags.  Their 
politeness,  half  saucy,  half  obsequious,  was 
very  amusing  ;  on  entering  the  room  they  all 
stood  in  a  row  at  the  lower  end,  and  when 
some  jocose  observations  were  made  to  them 
by  their  mistress,  a  ready  and  half  impudent 
reply  was  never  wanting.  The  youngest, 
about  eight  years  of  age,  was  dressed  in  a 
miniature  colonel's  full  uniform  ;  on  being 
addressed  by  her  owner  by  the  name  of 
"  Pick,"  *  and  asked,  "  Will  you  have  this 
lady's  little  son  for  your  husband  ?  I  mean  to 
marry  him  to  you  when  you  grow  up  !"  the 
little  miss  laughed,  and  seemed  perfectly 
well  acquainted  with  the  meaning  of  the  pro- 
posal, and  by  no  means  abashed  at  it. 

The  treatment  these  girls  received  seemed 
to  be  very  kind,  but  sadly  wanting  in  decen- 
cy, morality,  and  good  principle. 

On  the  accession  of  a  new  Sultan  to  the 
throne,  it  was  customary  to  make  a  clearance 
of  most  of  the  inmates  of  the  seraglio,  and 
replenish  it  with  fresh  ones,  such  as  those 
that  already  belonged  to  the  household  of  the 
new  sovereign,  and  others  further  to  augment 
the  number.  Ottoman  sultans,  with  two  ex- 
ceptions, have  never  been  known  to  marry  ; 
the  mates  of  the  Sultan,  chosen  from  among 
the  ranks  of  slaves  already  mentioned,  or 
from  among  those  that  are  presented  to  him, 
can  only  be  admitted  to  the  honorable  title  of 
wife  when  they  have  borne  children.  The 
first  wife  is  called  Bash  Kadin  Effendi,  the 
second  Ikinji  Kadin  Effendi,  and  so  on  in 
numerical  order  up  to  the  seventh  wife 
(should  there  be  so  many),  who  would  be 
called  Yedinji  Kadin  Effendi. f 

The  slaves  that  have  borne  children  be- 
yond this  number  bear  the  title  of  Hanoums, 
and  rank  after  the  Kadin  Effendis  ;  their 
children  are  considered  legitimate,  and  rank 
with  the  other  princes  and  princesses.  To 
these  two  classes  must  be  added  a  third,  that 
of  favorites,  who  having  no  right  to  the  title 
of  Kadin  Effendi  or  Hanoum,  are  dependent 
solely  upon  the  caprice  of  their  master  or  the 
influence  they  may  have  acquired  over  him 
for  the  position  they  hold  in  the  imperial 
household. 

Under  this  system  every  slave  in  the  se- 
raglio, from  the  scullery-maid  to  the  fair  and 
delicate  beauty  purchased  for  her  personal 
charms,  may  aspire  to  attaining  the  rank  of 
wife,  odalisk,  or  favorite.  The  mother  of  the 
late  Sultan  Abdul- Aziz  is  said  to  have  per- 
formed the  most  menial  offices  in  the  estab- 
lishment. When  thus  engaged  one  day  she 
happened  to  attract  the  attention  of  her  im- 


*  In  polite  language.  "  child  of  unknown  paternity." 
t  A  few  years  ago  the  mother  of  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz, 
desirous  of  further  reducing  this  number,  brought  for- 
ward an  old  palace  regulation,  that  every  seraglio 
woman  found  enceinte  should  be  subjected  to  the 
operation  of  artificial  abortion,  with  the  exception  of 
the  first  four  wives. 


perial  master,  Sultan  Mahmoud  II. ,  who  dis- 
tinguished her  with  every  mark  of  attention, 
and  raised  her  to  the  rank  of  Bash  Kadin. 
Generally  speaking,  however,  the  wives  of 
sultans  are  select  beauties  who  are  offered  to 
him  yearly  by  the  nation  on  the  feast  of  Kan- 
dil  Ghedjessi,  others  are  gifts  of  the  Valide 
and  other  persons  wishing  to  make  an  offer- 
ing to  the  Sultan. 

When  one  of  these  odalisks  has  succeeded 
in  gaining  the  good  graces  of  the  Sultan,  and 
attracted  his  attention,  he  calls  up  the  Ikinji 
Hasnadar  Ousta,*  and  notifies  to  her  his  de- 
sire of  receiving  the  favored  beauty  into  his 
apartment.  The  slave,  being  informed  of 
this,  is  bathed,  dressed  with  great  care  and 
elegance,  and  introduced  in  the  evening  to 
the  imperial  presence.  Should  she  be  so  for- 
tunate as  to  find  favor  in  the  eyes  of  her  lord 
and  master,  she  is  on  the  next  morning  ad- 
mitted into  a  separate  room  reserved  for 
slaves  of  this  category,  which  she  occupies 
during  the  time  needful  for  ascertaining 
what  rank  she  is  in  future  to  take  in  the  se- 
raglio. Should  the  arrival  of  a  child  raise  her 
to  that  of  Kadin  Effendi  or  hanoum,  a  Daire, 
or  special  apartment,  is  set  apart  for  her. 
Those  who  are  admitted  to  the  Sultan's  pres- 
ence, and  have  no  claims  to  the  rights  of  ma- 
ternity, do  not  present  themselves  a  second 
time  unless  requested  to  do  so,  nor  can  they 
lay  claim  to  any  further  attention,  although 
their  persons,  like  those  of  the  Kadin  Effendi 
and  hanoums,  become  sacred,  and  the  con- 
traction of  marriage  with  another  person  is 
unlawful.  The  distinction  between  the  fa- 
vored and  the  discarded  favorite  is  made 
known  by  her  abstaining  from  going  to  the 
hmitmam.  The  lot  of  these  discarded  favor- 
ites is  naturally  not  an  enviable  one.  Acci- 
dentally noticed  by  the  Sultan,  or  entertained 
by  him  as  the  object  of  a  mere  passing  ca- 
price, they  seldom  have  the  good  fortune  to 
occupy  a  sufficient  ascendency  over  the  mind 
or  heart  of  the  sovereign  to  enable  them  to 
prolong  or  consolidate  their  influence. 

A  seraglio  inmate,  who  had  herself  en- 
joyed Imperial  favor  of  this  description,  told 
me  that  it  was  very  seldom  that  a  slave  en- 
joyed more  than  once  the  passing  notice  of 
the  Sultan,  a  disappointment  naturally  very 
deeply  felt  by  those  who  after  being  sudden- 
ly raised  to  the  height  of  favor  find  them- 
selves quickly  consigned  again  to  oblivion, 
in  which  their  future  is  passed.  There  are 
many  among  the  rejected  favorites  who  have 
sensitive  natures  and  are  capable  of  a  serious 
attachment,  and  in  consequence  of  the  sar- 
casms the  more  favored  fail  not  to  heap  upon 
them,  the  disappointment  they  have  experi- 
enced, or  the  devouring  jealousy  that  unre- 
quited love  occasions,  are  said  to  become  bro- 
ken-hearted or  die  of  consumption.  "  Nor," 
continued  my  informant,  "  was  the  condition 
of  those  more  closely  connected  with  the 
Sultan  such  as  insured  to  them  perfect  hap- 
piness, mental  unconcern,  or  security. " 

They  are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  every 
art  to  preserve  their  beauty,  fight  hard 
against  the  attacks  and  intrigues  of  rivals, 
and  carefully  to  watch  over  themselves  and 
their  offspring. 

Bessimu  Sultana,  one  of  the  few  who  ob- 
tained a  right  to  that  title  by  marriage,  Vas 
an  emancipated  slave,  adopted  by  the  lady 
who  had  brought  her  up,  and  consequently 
could  not  be  possessed  by  Sultan  Abdul-Meet- 
jid  unless  through  Nekyah,  or  legal  marriage. 

In  relating  her  strange  and  adventurous 
life,  as  one  of  the  Kadin  Effendis,  to  a  per- 
sonal friend  of  mine,  she  said,  Nothing  can 
give  a  clear  idea  of  the  intrigues  and  cabals 
perpetually  carried  on  within  the  walls  of 
the  seraglio.  The  power  and  happiness  of 
some  contrast  strangely  with  the  trials  and 
sufferings  of  those  who  are  in  the  power  of 
the  influential  and  malicious.  Every  crime 
that  has  a  chance  of  being  silently  passed 
over  can  be  committed  by  these. 


*  Under-superintendent  of  the  harem. 

3 


The  slave  who,  by  her  interesting  position, 
becomes  entitled  to  the  use  of  separate  apart- 
ments, receives  a  pension,  has  her  own 
slaves,  her  eunuchs,  her  doctors,  banker, 
carriages,  and  caiques,  and  is  supplied  with 
apparel,  jewels,  and  all  other  requisites  suit- 
ed to  her  rank.  She  dines  in  her  own  rooms, 
receives  her  friends,  and  goes  out  when  al- 
lowed to  do  so.  On  attaining  this  rank  a 
new  world,  dazzling  with  gold,  luxury,  and 
every  refinement  belonging  to  the  favored 
and  elevated  is  opened  to  her,  raising  her  far 
above  her  former  companions  in  toil  an-1 
frolic,  who  in  future,  setting  aside  all  famil- 
iarity, stand  before  her  with  folded  arms, 
kiss  the  hem  of  her  garment,  and  obey  her 
orders  with  profound  respect. 

The  favored  beauty  fulfils  the  duties  of 
her  new  position  with  the  elegance,  dignity,  . 
and  savoir  faire  of  an  enchanted  being,  who, 
accustomed  to  the  distant  perspective  of  the 
fairy-land  which  has  been  the  one  object  of 
her  dreams,  suddenly  attains  it,  and  feels  at 
home.  Her  single  aim  in  life  is  now  to  pre- 
serve those  charms  which  have  caused  her 
elevation. 

In  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid's  time,  blue-eyed, 
delicate  beauties  with  golden  hair  were  the 
most  admired  by  the  Sultan  ;  fair  beauties 
consequently  became  extremely  reeherehSes, 
and  the  grand  ladies  of  the  capital  vied  with 
each  other  in  their  assiduity  in  finding  out 
anil  educating  them,  in  order  to  present  then; 
to  the  seraglio.  By  degrees  the  taste  for 
Lavpisoa,  or  golden  locks,  became  so  general 
in  Turkish  society  as  to  make  the  fortune  of 
many  a  Pera  perruquier,  who  sold  for  a  guinea 
the  tiny  bottle  of  fluid  that  changed  the^lusky 
hair  into  golden  tresses,  whilst  the  ladies  paid 
the  penalty  of  its  abuse  in  the  injury  done 
to  their  eyes  and  the  nervous  maladies  con- 
tracted by  its  use.  Besides  this,  all  the  seraglio 
ladies  indulged  to  a  great  extent  in  paint, 
rouge,  and  rastuk  (antimony)  for  the  ej'cs 
and  eyebrows. 

A  French  proverb  says,  "  La  femme  est 
un  animal  qui  s'habille,  babillc  ct  se  barbou- 
ille."  If  this  can  be  applied  t  )  any  particu- 
lar class  of  womankind,  it  is  surely  to  the 
Inhabitants  of  the  fairy-laud  I  have  attempt- 
ed to  describe. 

The  Valide  Sultana,  or  mother  of  the  Sul- 
tan, ranks  first  in  the  seraglio  ;  one  of  the 
wings  of  the  palace  nearest  to  that  occupied 
by  her  son  is  set  apart  for  her  use.  She  pos- 
sesses state  apartments,  has  an  innumerable 
train  of  slaves,  and  every  mark  of  attention 
is  paid  her  not  only  by  the  Sultan,  but  also 
by  all  the  high  functionaries  of  the  Porte, 
who  at  times  have  more  to  dread  from  her 
influence  and  interference  than  from  the  Sul- 
tan himself.  The  other  members  of  the  Im- 
perial family  rank  next  by  courtesy,  but 
these  are  all  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
Hasnadar  Ousta,  or  superintendent,  who, 
with  her  assistant,  the  second  Hasnadar  Ous- 
ta, attends  to  all  the  wants  of  each  depart- 
ment, regulates  their  internal  administration, 
and  acts  as  go-between  of  the  Sultan  and  his 
tvives  when  they  have  any  request  to  make 
to  him,  or  when  he  has  orders  to  give  respect- 
ing them  ;  she  also  regulates  the  receptions 
and  ceremonies  as  well  as  the  expenses. 
Some  of  her  duties  are  of  the  most  delicate, 
difficult,  and  responsible  nature,  and  require 
a  great  amount  of  judgment  and  experience. 
The  person  appointed  to  this  important  post 
is  generally  the  favorite  slave  of  the  Valide. 

Very  few  of  the  seraglio  inmates,  except 
young  princesses  and  other  children  that  are 
brought  up  from  their  infancy  in  it,  possess 
any  knowledge  of  writing,  or  have  had  the 
advantage  of  regular  training.  All  started  in 
life  from  the  same  condition  :  chance  alone 
settles  the  difference  between  the  wife,  oda- 
lisk,  favorite,  and  Imperial  mother,  and 
draws  a  line  between  them  and  their  luckless 
sisters  left  to  the  exercise  of  menial  func- 
tions. 

Education,  much  neglected  as  yet  among 
Turkish  women,  has  made  very  little  prog- 


34 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


ress  in  the  seraglio,  where  it  would  prove 
an  invaluable  aid  to  those  destined  to  hold 
the  responsible  positions  of  wives  and  moth- 
ers of  Sultans.  If  the  former,  instead  of  be- 
ing chosen  as  they  are  from  a  host  of  human 
beings  chained  to  the  service  of  a  single  in- 
dividual, with  the  sole  object  of  amusing  his 
leisure  hours,  attending  to  his  wants,  and 
giving  him  the  progeny  that  is  to  succeed 
him  on  the  throne,  were  selected,  as  in  other 
countries,  from  among  educated  ladies,  and 
their  number  fixed  (or  reduced  to  one)  by  the 
laws  of  religion  and  civilization,  how  differ- 
ent would  seraglio  life  be  !  Dignity  and  es- 
teem would  replace  humiliation  ;  woman,  ele- 
vated to  her  true  sphere,  would  exercise  her 
influence  for  high  and  noble  objects,  instead 
of  the  unworthy  purposes  which  she  effects 
through  the  only  channel  left  open  to  her. 

Under  such  a  system  it  will  not  be  surpris- 
ing to  hear  of  vice  and  corruption  prevailing 
in  a  centre  where  virtue  is  crushed,  and  the 
benefits  of  sound  education  are  neither  ac- 
quired nor  appreciated.  The  correctness  of 
this  statement,  which  may  appear  severe,  can 
only  be  understood  and  appreciated  by  those 
who  have  come  in  contact  with  inmates  of 
the  seraglio,  and  are  well  acquainted  with 
the  language,  manners,  and  customs  of  the 
Turks.  Such  persons  would  have  no  hesita- 
tion in  admitting  that  exceptions  are  to  be 
found  in  the  seraglio,  as  well  as  in  the  rest  of 
Turkish  society.  The  class  which  is  in  the 
minority  consists  of  those  naturally  gifted 
natures,  to  be  met  with  in  this  country  as  else- 
where, who  possess  virtues  that  yield  not  to 
the  influences  of  temptation  and  vice,  and  be- 
come ladies  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word. 
The  real  Turkish  Hanoum,  or  lady,  is  a  dig- 
nified, quiet  person,  elegant,  sensible,  and 
often  naturally  eloquent,  condescending  and 
kind  to  those  who  gain  her  good-will,  proud 
and  reserved  to  those  who  do  not  merit  her 
esteem.  Her  conversational  resources  are  cer- 
tainly limited,  but  the  sweetness  and  poetry 
of  the  language  she  uses,  the  pretty  manner 
in  which  her  expressions  are  worded,  and  the 
spirited  repartee  that  she  can  command  have 
a  charm  that  atones  for  her  limited  knowl- 
edge. Her  manners,  principles,  and  choice  of 
language  offer  a  pleasant  contrast  to  those 
prevalent  among  the  generality,  and  render 
her  society  extremely  agreeable. 

There  is  another  class  of  serailis  who  pre- 
sent a  not  less  interesting  study.  Sensitive 
and  refined,  fragile  and  dreamy  in  appearance, 
gifted  perhaps  with  virtues  they  have  no  oc- 
casion to  exercise,  or  with  stroug  and  passion- 
ate feelings  that  in  a  seraglio  can  never  find 
vent  in  a  solid  and  healthy  affection,  they  be- 
come languid  and  spiritless,  verging  towards 
decline,  to  which  they  fall  victims,  unless  re- 
leased (as  occasionally  happens)  by  being  set 
free  and  married. 

Another  class  of  serailis  is  the  independ- 
ent set,  who  are  denominated  Deli  Serailis, 
or  wild  serailis,  famous  for  their  extravagant 
ideas,  disorderly  conduct,  and  unruly  disposi- 
tion ;  endowed  with  the  bump  of  cunning 
and  mischief,  joined  to  a  fair  amount  of  en- 
ergy and  vivacity,  they  carry  out,  in  spite 
of  high  walls  and  the  watchful  surveillance 
of  more  than  a  hundred  eunuchs,  all  the 
wicked  plans  and  mad  freaks  their  disorderly 
minds  and  impulsive  natures  suggest  to  them  ; 
their  language,  manners,  and  actions  are 
such  as  no  nen  can  describe.  In  the  reign  of 
Sultan  Abdul-Medjid,  the  misconduct  and 
extravagance  of  this  set  had  reached  its  cli- 
max, and  attracted  the  attention  even  of  that 
indulgent  sovereign,  who  was  induced  to  or- 
der the  expulsion  of  the  most  notorious.  A 
few  of  them  were  exiled,  others  given  in 
marriage,  by  Imperial  order,  to  some  depend 
ants  of  the  palace,  who  received  official 
appointments  or  were  sent  into  the  interior. 
These  unfortunate  men,  burdened  with  their 
uncongenial  helpmates,  were  but  inadequate- 
ly compensated  by  the  rich  gifts  they  received 
at  the  same  time.  During  a  long  residence 
in  the  interior  of  Turkey,  I  became  person- 


ally acquainted  with  a  number  of  these 
ladies.  One  of  them,  a  stout,  coarse-looking 
woman,  would  not  even  deign  to  show  that 
outward  appearance  of  respect  required  from 
every  Turkish  woman  towards  her  husband. 
She  was  the  wife  of  a  sub-governor,  in  whose 
house  I  passed  a  day  and  uight ;  she  was 
gay  and  of  a  sociable  disposition,  but  evi- 
dently not  much  attached  to  her  husband, 
whom  she  designated  as  Bezim  Kambour  (my 
hen-pecked  one),  and  to  whom  she  addressed 
invectives  of  a  very  violent  nature,  accom- 
panied, as  I  was  subsequently  informed,  by 
corporal  chastisement. 

A  second  seraili,  worthy  of  mention,  was 
a  thin  Circassian  brunette,  married  to  a  gov- 
ernor-general of  high  rank.  She  had  a  pro- 
pensity, rather  unusual  amongst  Turkish 
women,  to  an  abuse  of  strong  drinks,  and  she 
and  her  boon  companions  indulged  in  this 
excess  to  such  a  degree  as  to  shock  and  scan- 
dalize the  Mohammedan  portion  of  the  in- 
habitants wherever  she  went. 

The  other  serailis  of  this  class  were  so 
strange  and  extravagant  in  their  manners, 
and  their  actions  had  made  them  so  notorious, 
that  details  of  their  freaks  would  be  as  unedi- 
fying  to  the  public  as  painful  to  me  to  describe. 

Generally  speaking,  I  frequented  this 
class  of  serailis  as  little  as  the  converumces  of 
society  permitted,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
experienced  great  pleasure  in  associating  with 
the  serailis  that  belonged  to  the  respectable 
class,  in  whose  society,  conversing  upon  se- 
raglio life,  I 
hour. 


During  the  reign  of  his  successor  the  tone 
of  the  seraglio  became  more  serious  and  the 
life  of  its  inmates  more  constrained  ;  there 
was  less  European  amusement  and  more  Turk- 
ish ;  such  as  a  Turkish  theatre,  whose  actors 
and  actresses,  Turkish  and  Armenian,  per- 
formed Turkish  pieces,  with  a  certain  amount 
of  success,  such  as  the  Meydan  Oyoun,  a 
coarse  kind  of  comedy,  and  other  representa- 
tions of  a  similar  character. 

A  child  born  in  the  seraglio  is  allowed  to 
remain  under  the  care  of  its  mother,  who, 
with  ,the  assistance  of  a  wet-nurse  and  sev- 
eral under-nurses,  has  charge  of  its  infantile 
wants  up  to  the  age  of  seven.  The  wet-nurse 
is  generally  sent  for  from  Circassia.  On  en- 
tering upon  her  duties  as  foster-mother,  she 
is  entitled  to  special  attention,  and  exercises 
great  influence  over  her  charge.  Her  own 
child  is  received  as  Sut  Kardash,  or  foster- 
brother,  of  the  Imperial  offspring,  and  enjoys 
the  privilege  of  becoming  his  playmate  and 
companion.  The  two  children,  as  they  grow 
up  together,  never  lose  sight  of  one  another, 
the  fortune  of  the  one  being  assured  in  right 
of  the  privilege  of  having  drawn  its  nourish- 
ment from  the  same  source  as  the  other. 

I  obtained  these  details  from  a  Pasha  of  high 
rank,  who  had  himself  the  honor  of  beiinj 
foster-brother  to  one  of  the  Sultans  :  he  said, 
"  Before  I  saw  the  light,  my  mother  was 
sent  for  from  Circassia,  and  my  birth,  which 


took  place  in  the  seraglio,  preceded  that  of 

his  Imperial  Majesty  by  a  few  weeks.     As  I 

have  spent   many  a  pleasant  !  grew  up,  the  prosperity  of  my  family,  due  to 

Imperial  bounty,  was  not  limited  to  my 
The  amusements  in  the  Imperial  palace  de-  j  mother  and  myself,  but  extended  to  my  father 
pend  very  much  upon  the  tastes  and  dispo-  and  the  rest  of  my  relatives,  who  were 
sition  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  whose  pleas-  ,  brought  to  Constantinople,  and  enriched  with 
ure  in  such  matters  is  naturally  first  con-  grants  of  wealth,  rank,  and  position."  The 
suited.  In  the  days  of  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid  results,  however,  of  these  ties  are  not  always 
these  amusements  daily  received  some  in- j  so  favorable  to  the  Imperial  prince  as  to  Jhose 
crease  in  the  shape  of  European  innovations. 
A  theatre  of  great  beauty  was  built  in  one  of 


the  palaces,  by  order  of  the  Sultan,  and  a 
European  company  of  actors  played  pieces, 
which  the  ladies  were  allowed  to  witness  from 
behind  lattices.  Ballet-dancing,  for  which 
the  Sultan  evinced  great  partiality  ;  conjurors 
of  European  celebrity  ;  the  Turkish  Kara 
Guez,  or  Marionettes  ;  al  fresco  entertain- 
ments, etc. ,  were  among  the  entertainments. 
Shopping  in  the  streets  of  Pera  was  not  the 


who  owe  their  all  to  his  generosity.  These 
persons,  being  of  humble  origin,  on  finding 
themselves  suddenly  raised  to  a  higher 
sphere,  do  not  possess  the  necessary  qualifi- 
cation for  making  a  good  and  judicious  use 
of  the  influence  they  thus  acquire.  The  fos- 
ter-mother of  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz  was  notori- 
ous for  her  rapacity  and  spirit  of  intrigue  ; 
she  had,  by  degrees,  acquired  such  ascendency 
in  the  seraglio  as  to  have  it  in  her  power  to 
appoint  or  dismiss,  at  her  will,   governors- 


least  appreciated  of  their  amusements.  The  general  and  other  important  personages. 
French  shopkeeper  himself  played  as  prom-  One  of  her  special  proteges,  on  being  in- 
inent  a  part  in  the  matter  as  the  perfumes  formed  that  he  was  about  to  be  transferred 
and  finery  he  displayed    and   sold.      There    from  his  post  as  Governor-General  of  a  vilayet 

were  also  delightful  garden-parties,  when  the  j  of  R ,  smiled  calmly,  and  said  to  me,  "  So- 

seraglio  grounds  would  be  lighted  up  with  .  long  as  the  Sultan's  foster-mother  is  there  to 


variegated  lanterns  and  fireworks,  and  all 
that  the  Palace  contained  of  youth  and  beau- 
ty turned  out  ;  some,  dressed  as  young  pages. 
would  act  the  part  of  Lovelace,  and  make 
love  to  their  equally  fair  companions,  dressed 
in  light  fancy  costumes  ;  others,  grouped  to- 
gether, would  perforin  on  musical  instru- 
ments or  execute  different  dances  ;  others, 
again,  seated  in  light  caiques,  with  costumes 
so  transparent  and  airy  as  to  show   every 


protect  my  interests,  I  am  in  no  danger  of 
that  !  The  attempt  made  to  remove  me  will 
cost  a  little  money,  that  is  all  !" 

The  training  of  the  Imperial  child  is  not 
free  from  the  many  drawbacks  that  attend 
other  Turkish  children.  From  its  earliest  in- 
fancy, left  in  the  hands  of  fond  but  weak  and 
uneducated  women,  the  child  becomes  way- 
ward, capricious,  and  difficult  to  please. 

This  lenient  treatment  of  the  infant  is  con- 


muscle  of  their  bodies,  and  with  flowing  hair  tiuued  in  the  more  advanced  stages  of  its  life, 
to  | ) reserve  their  white  necks  from  the  even-  (  and  seriously  retards  its  education.  At  this 
ing  dew,  would  race  on  the  still  waters  of  the  period  Imperial  princes  and  princesses  corn- 
lakes.  \  mand  absolute  attention,  obedience,  and  re- 
The  Sultanas  and  hanoums,  seated  on  car-  spect  from  the  legion  of  menials  that  sur- 
peta,  beguiling  the  time  by  drinking  sherbets,  \  round  them,  who,  anxious  to  lay  the  founda- 
eating  fruits  and  ices,  and  smoking  cigar-  tions  of  future  favoritism,  refuse  nothing  in 
ettes,  would  gaze  on  the  scene,  while  strains  :  their  power,  and  pamper  their  vanity  and 
of  music  and  the  notes  of  the  Shaiki  (songs) ,  precocious  ideas  to  such  an  extent  as  to  de- 
would  be  heard  in  all  directions.  All,  how-  '  stroy  in  great  part  the  effects  of  the  teaching 
ever,  both  slaves  and  ladies,  were  similarly  '  they  receive,  often  rendering  profitless  the 
occupied  with  one  sole  object— that  of  ren-  instruction  given  them  in  morality  and  good 
dering  the  scene  pleasant  and  beauteous  to  the   principle. 

lord  and  master  for  whom  it  was  designed.  '  The  knowledge  generally  acquired  by 
All  would  redouble  their  life  and  animation  Turkish  princes  was  formerly  limited  to  the 
as  the  Sultan  listlessly  approached  each  group,  '  study  of  Arabic,  and  the  Persian,  Turkish, 
acknowledging  its  presence  with  a  sweet '  and  French  languages,  with  other  branches 
smile,  a  gentle  word,  or  a  passing  caress,  :  of  the  general  Turkish  education,  but  the 
which  he  never  withheld  even  when  all  the  ,  harem  indolence,  and. the  maternal  and  pa- 
faculties  of  enjoyment  were  destroyed,  and  ;  tenia!  indulgence,  sadly  interrupt  the  course 
his  earthly  paradise  of  houris  had  become  an  \  of  their  lessons,  which  are  gone  through  in  a 
object  of  indifference.  |  most  negligent  manner,  and  fail  to  have  their 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


35 


due  effect  upon  the  young  mind  that  pursues 
them  with  little  assiduity. 

The  education  of  the  young  princesses  ia 
still  more  deficient,  both  in  the  substance  of 
the  teaching  and  in  the  manner  and  time  in 
which  it  is  undertaken.  An  elementary 
knowledge  of  their  native  language,  of  music, 
and  needlework,  given  at  leisure  and  received 
at  pleasure,  is  considered  quite  sufficient. 
These  girls,  on  attaining  the  age  of  fifteen 
or  sixteen,  are  richly  portioned,  receive  the 
gift  of  a  splendid  trousseau,  jewelry,  and  a 
palace,  and  are  married  to  some  court  favor- 
ite. In  consequence  of  their  high  birth,  and 
die  precedence  they  have  over  their  husbands, 
these  princesses  are  very  independent,  and 
absolute  mistresses  in  their  households. 

Few  of  the  married  princesses  in  the  reigns 
of  the  more  recent  Sultans  enjoyed  good  repu- 
tations, or  acquired  public  esteem,  or  even  the 
affection  of  their  husbands.  Wayward  and 
extravagant  in  their  habits,  tyrannical,  and 
often  cruel,  their  treatment  of  their  little-to- 
be-envied  spouses  furnished  cause  for  endless 
gossip  to  the  society  of  Slamboul.  The  few 
princesses  who  formed  exceptions  to  this  rule 
are  still  remembered  with  affection  by  the 
numerous  dependants  of  their  establishments. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

MUNICIPALITY,    POLICE,    AND  BRIGANDAGE. 

Municipality.— Improvement  at  Constantinople— No 
Improvement  in  Country  Towns  —  Sanitary  Negli- 
gence. 

Police. — The  Corruption  of  the  old  Police — Form- 
ation of  the  new  Corps — Its  various  Classes— Econo- 
mical Reductions — The  Corruption  of  the  new  Police 
— Voluntary  Guards  the  connecting  Link  between 
Police  and  Brigandage. 

Brigandage. — Ancient  and  Modern  Brigands — Great 
Diminution  of  Numbers— Constant  Outrages,  however 
— Albanians  the  born  Brigands — Systematic  Attacks — 
Uselessness  of  the  Police — My  Brigand  Guides— Usual 
Manner  of  Attack—  Danger  to  Kheradjis — Brigands 
at  Vodena  repulsed  by  a  Chorbadji  and  his  Wife- 
Impotence  of  the  Authorities— Outrage  at  Caterina 
— Modern  Greek  Klephts. 

The  sanitary  and  protective  laws  of  Tur- 
key are  in  their  application  still  very  primi- 
tive, although  of  late  years  they  have  been  \ 
revised  and  reorganized,  and  a  municipality 
and  district  police  corps  have  been  formed. 
The  carrying  out  of  these  new  laws  was  in- 
trusted to  a  regular  administration,  having  J 
its  chief  seat  at  Constantinople,  with  branches 
in  all  the  provincial  towns,  and  it  has  done 
good  service  in  the  capital  itself,  for  many  I 
of  the  improvements  that  have  been  made  i 
there  are  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  municipal- 
ity 

In  other  towns,  however,  its  good  influence, 
though  well  paid  for  by  the  inhabitants  has 
hitherto  been  little  felt.  The  streets  continue 
to  be  ill-paved,  and  but  dimly  lighted  with 
petroleum  ;  sanitary  measures  are  neglected  ; 
immense  heaps  of  refuse  are  piled  upon  pieces 
of  waste  ground  and  stray  spots,  and  are  left 
to  decompose  by  the  action  of  the  air,  be  de- 
voured by  unclean  animals,  or  float  away  on 
some  small  stream  of  water.  Enough,  how- 
ever, remains  in  the  streets  and  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  towns  and  villages  to  pollute  the  air 
and  cause  intermittent  fever.  Fortunately 
the  climate  is  naturally  salubrious,  and  the 
public  health,  taken  on  an  average,  is  good. 
Some  districts  are  considered  very  unhealthy, 
but  the  fault  lies  with  the  municipality  of  the 
place,  who,  when  they  become  more  intelli- 
gent and  active,  may  perhaps  attend  less  to 
their  own  interests  and  more  to  those  of  the 
public.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  inno- 
vations of  the  Beledie,  or  municipality,  small 
portions  of  pavement,  two  or  three  feet  in 
length,  are  now  and  then  constructed,  pro- 
fessing to  be  the  commencement  of  a  magnifi- 
cent pavement  that  is  to  traverse  the  town  ; 
but  alas  !  after  a  few  weeks  the  work  is 
abandoned,  and  these  short  lengths  of  foot- 
path are  left  isolated  in  the  midst  of  pools  of 
mud  and  water,  which  can  only  be  crossed  by 
using  the  boulders  scattered  here  and  there  as 
stepping-stones. 

Sometimes  a  number  of  scavengers  may  be 


seen  doing  duty  in  the  streets,  or  carting 
away  tlic  rubbish  collected  in  the  town  ;  but 
they  only  convey  it  to  the  quay,  where  it  is 
left  for  the  ragged  Jews  and  other  beggars  to 
explore. 

The  defects  of  the  police  were  far  more 
serious  and  more  deeply  felt  throughout  Tur- 
key than  those  of  the  municipality.  The 
police  were  insufficient  as  a  protective  force. 
They  were  badly  organized,  and  they  showed 
an  utter  want  of  principle,  honesty,  and 
morality.  The  deplorable  condition  of  this 
corps,  and  the  oppressive  and  illegal  influ- 
ence it  exerted  over  the  people,  gave  rise  to 
great  public  indignation,  and  induced  the 
people  to  complain  loudly  against  it. 

Ali  and  Fuad  Pashas',  well  aware  of  the 
grievance,  were  the  first  to  attempt  a  thorough 
police  reform.  By  their  united  efforts  a  reg- 
ular corps  was  formed,  more  numerous,  bet- 
ter conditioned,  better  paid,  clad  in  uniform, 
and  classified  as  follows  : 

(1.)  The  Kava&e*,  doing  duty  in  the  capi- 
tal and  attached  to  embassies  and  other 
foreign  offices. 

(2.)  The  Seymen,  doing  police  duty  at 
Constantinople. 

(3.)  The  Z<iptie/i#,  foot  police  fqr  the  service 
of  the  district  administration. 

(4.)  The  Soiibaris,  mounted  police,  charged 
with  the  superintendence  of  public  safety  ; 
with  the  office  of  receiving  the  taxes  from  the 
villages  and  transmitting  them  to  the  author- 
ities ;  and  with  the  duty  of  accompanying 
overland  mails,  travellers,  etc. 

(5.)  The  Bekchis,  or  rural  police,  placed  at 
the  Beklemes  or  guard-houses  on  all  the 
main  roads. 
(6.)  The  Teftish,  or  detectives. 
The  uniform  worn  by  the  Kavasses  con- 
sists of  a  black  cloth  coat  and  trousers, 
braided  with  gold,  a  belt,  and  a  formidable- 
looking  Turkish  sword  and  pistol.  That  of 
the  detectives  is  similar,  but  they  carry  no 
arms.  The  rest  of  the  police  wear  a  uniform 
similar  to  that  of  the  Zouaves,  of  dark  blue 
s/ini/iik,  braided  and  turned  up  with  red,  a 
black  leather  belt  and  a  cutlass.  The  Sou- 
baris  have  long  guns,  and  all  wear  the  fez. 
The  officers'  uniform  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
officers'  in  the  army.  The  arms  are  supplied 
by  the  Government,  andanewsuit  of  clothes 
allowed  every  year. 

When  this  body  was  first  organized,  some 
attention  was  paid  to  enrolling  in  it  men  of 
respectable  character.  The  increase  of  pay 
and  the  regularity  of  the  pay-days  gave  it  for 
some  time  a  better  name  than  the  old  force  ; 
but,  unfortunately,  hardly  had  the  people  be- 
gun to  feel  the  benefit  of  the  changes  created 
during  the  reform  fever,  than  these  were  set 
aside  to  make  room  for  the  economical  mania 
that  took  possession  of  the  administration 
on  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry.  This 
latest  epidemic,  of  the  many  that  have  at- 
tacked Turkey,  was  fatal  to  the  provincial 
administration  in  general,  and  affected  the  po- 
lice in  particular.  Their  numbers  were  re- 
duced, and  pay  diminished,  and  irregularly 
distributed.  The  guard-houses  on  the  high- 
ways, which  had  been  established  at  the  dis- 
tance of  four  miles  from  each  other,  and  in- 
trusted to  Bekchis,  who  were  held  responsible 
for  the  security  of  their  districts,  were  aban- 
doned and  fell  into  ruin,  or  were  occupied  by 
worthless  fellows  who  undertook  the  duty  for 
a  small  recompense,  which  proving  difficult 
to  obtain,  these  so-called  "  guards"  were 
compelled  to  make  up  their  financial  deficits 
as  best  they  could. 

I  heard  of  a  fellow  of  this  kind  who  had 
taken  the  post  of  Bekchi  in  a  mountain  pass 
as  a  chiplak,  or  tattered  Albanian,  but  who 
after  a  year  had  passed  was  the  owner  of  700 
goats  and  a  fine  house,  and  was  dressed  in  all 
the  glory  of  his  national  costume. 

How  did  he  obtain  it  ?  is  a  question  not 
easily  answered  if  put  to  a  great  many  of  his 
class.  I  do  not,  myself,  find  the  problem 
difficult  of  solution.  These  amateur  guards 
would  seem  to  be  the  connecting  link  be- 


tween the  police  and  the  brigands  ;   if,  in- 
deed, any  such  link  were  needed. 

Conversing,  some  time  ago,  with  some 
highly  educated  Bulgarians,  well  versed  in  the 
affairs  of  their  country.  I  was  told  that  the 
chief  causes  of  the  discontent  of  their  nation 
were  the  increase  of  the  taxes,  the  harshness 
with  which  the  payment  was  enforced  upon 
them  by  the  district  officials,  the  extortion  of 
the  police,  and  the  robberies  and  crimes  com- 
mitted by  the  Circassians.  The  people  com- 
plained most  bitterly  of  the  insolent  arro- 
gance of  the  police,  which  they  declared 
drove  them  to  desperation,  and  made  them 
ready  to  listen  to  any  one  who  promised  re- 
lease, rather  than  continue  to  submit  longer 
to  such  evils.  There  are,  of  course,  some 
honest  men  in  the  police  force  who  are  ready 
to  do  their  duty,  but  the  generality  are  un- 
questionably immoral  and  unscrupulous,  and, 
even  if  they  were  honest,  their  number  is  too 
small  for  the  protection  of  the  millions  who 
depend  upon  them  for  their  safety. 

From  time  immemorial  brigandage  has 
played  so  prominent  a  part  in  both  the  polit- 
ical and  social  condition  of  Turkey  that  a 
description  of  life  in  this  country  wrould  be 
incomplete  without  a  few  words  about  this 
lucrative  profession. 

I  shall  pass  over  the  time,  which  may  still 
be  remembered  by  some  of  the  oldest  inhab- 
itants, when  brigands,  mustering  in  over- 
whelming forces,  composed  of  degenerate 
janissaries  and  malcontents  from  all  the  pro- 
vinces of  European  Turkey,  gathered  under 
chieftains  like  Passvan  Oglou  and  Ali  Pasha 
of  Joannina,  defied  the  authority  of  the 
Porte,  ravaged  and  devastated  whole  pro- 
vinces, besieged  towns,  spread  terror  and 
bloodshed  on  every  side,  and  left  behind 
them  notliing  but  misery  and  tears.  The 
Greek  Klephts  were  not  more  renowned  for 
their  bravery  and  patriotism  than  for  the 
ravages  and  crimes  they  committed  during 
and  after  the  war  of  Greek  independence. 

Since  that  time  great  changes  have  taken 
place  in  Turkey,  and  brigandage  lost  its  an- 
cient power.  The  thousands  that  filled  its 
ranks  have,  in  our  day,  been  reduced  to  tens. 
But  the  evil  though  deprived  of  its  force, 
and  even  entirely  eradicated  in  some  parts  of 
the  country,  has  not  been  wholly  suppressed. 
Of  late  years,  in  Turkey,  brigandage  has 
ceased  to  clothe  itself  in  the  garb  of  politics  ; 
it  is  now  represented  merely  by  bands  of  cut- 
throats belonging  to  all  creeds  and  national- 
ities. The  chiefs,  however,  and  the  back- 
bone of  these  bands,  are  Albanians.  The 
number  is  made  up  by  Greeks,  Turks,  and 
Bulgarians.  The  Mussulman  Albanian  takes 
to  brigandage  because  he  likes  it,  and  willing- 
ly makes  a  profession  of  it  ;  the  others  join 
in  order  to  evade  justice,  or  to  avoid  want 
and  misery,  or  simply  to  respond  to  the  dic- 
tates of  a  vicious  and  criminal  disposition. 
It  is  generally  in  early  spring,  when  the  trees 
have  lost  their  nakedness  and  the  hedges  are 
covered  with  green  leaves  and  sweet-smell- 
ing blossoms,  that  this  clement  of  infamy  and 
destruction  makes  its  appearance,  taking  to 
the  highway  or  lurking  for  its  prey  among 
the  hills  and  valleys,  and  polluting  with  its 
blood-stained  feet  the  freshness  and  purity  of 
resurgent  nature.  Its  victims  may  often  be 
found  lying  dead  on  a  bed  of  violets  or  lilies, 
gazed  upon  by  the  wild  rose  that  hangs  its 
head  and  seems  to  blush  for  man's  outrage. 
Such  sights  are  of  every-day  occurrence. 

The  brigands  have  associates  living  in  the 
towns  with  every  appearance  of  respectabil- 
ity, who  furnish  them  with  timely  notice 
when  and  where  a  good  piece  of  business  can 
be  done.  They  have  spies  who  give  them 
warning  when  danger  is  at  hand,  and  they 
often  find  protectors  in  high  places  to  help 
them  to  escape  the  arm  of  the  law.  As  for 
food,  the  flocks  of  the  terror-stricken  Chris- 
tian shepherds  are  at  their  mercy,  and  the 
peasant,  trembling  for  the  safety  of  his  home, 
dares  not  refuse  to  satisfy  them  with  bread 
and  wine.     He  dares  not  give  notice  to  the 


SO 


THE  PEOPLE  OF   TURKEY. 


authorities  of  the  presence  of  those  marauders, 
as  that  would  expose  him  to  their  vengeance, 
and  he  would  pay  for  his  temerity  with  his 
life.  But  should  the  authorities  suspect  a 
countryman  of  having  furnished  provision  or 
other  necessaries  to  the  brigands,  he  is  forth- 
with prosecuted  and  cast  into  prison  as  their 
associate  and  a  participator  in  their  spoils. 
These  are  the  causes  that  breed  and  rear  brig- 
andage in  Turkey  in  defiance  of  laws  and 
of  the  power  of  the  authorities.  The  police 
regulations,  theoretically  excellent,  are  prac- 
tically useless,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as 
one  of  the  principal  reasons  of  the  contin- 
uance of  brigandage,  a  scourge  on  the  inhabi- 
tants and  a  disgrace  to  the  administration. 

When  a  band  of  brigands  has  taken  up  its 
quarters  in  a  district,  the  country  round  is  con- 
tinually kept  on  the  qui  vine  by  its  repeated 
crimes  and  depredaticns.  A  force  of  Sou- 
baris  (mounted  police)  is  sent  in  chase,  but 
the  laxity  with  which  their  duty  is  generally 
discharged,  the  neglect  of  proper  precautions 
to  insure  success,  and  the  usual  futile  termi- 
nation of  such  expeditions,  are  often  caused 
by  unwillingness  to  risk  a  dangerous  encoun- 
ter, or  by  interested  motives  for  letting  off 
the  brigands. 

The  inhabitants,  on  the  other  hand,  suffer 
in  any  case  by  the  pursuit,  for,  when  it 
proves  fruitless,  it  does  not  save  them  from 
danger,  and  only  aggravates  the  enemy  ;  and 
when  the  chase  is  successful,  the  expenses 
of  having  these  armed  men  and  their  horses 
quartered  upon  them,  besides  the  suspicions 
and  injuries  to  which  they  are  often  exposed 
under  the  pretence  of  having  direct  or  indi- 
rect communication  with  the  brigands,  are 
so  great  as  to  render  the  remedy  almost 
worse  than  the  evil,  and  induce  them  to  pe- 
tition the  authorities  to  withdraw  the  Sou- 
baris  sent  for  their  protection. 

If  these  policemen  are  headed  by  an  hon- 
est and  courageous  chief,  as  occasionally  hap- 
pens, and  he  sets  to  work  earnestly  to  do  his 
duty,  success  is  almost  certain,  and  the  brig- 
ands are  either  captured,  destroyed,  or  dis- 
persed. Those  who  are  caught  are  disarmed, 
handcuffed,  and,  if  numerous  and  of  a  des- 
perate character,  chained  in  couples  and 
marched  off  to  prison.  Still  the  hardy  free- 
booters are  not  dispirited,  for  if  they  are 
wealthy,  or  the  proofs  of  their  crime  are  not 
transparently  clear,  their  chances  of  escape, 
especially  in  the  interior,  are  not  small,  and 
bribery  affords  them  a  ready  means  of  regain 
ins;  their  liberty. 

When  brigands  disperse  or  retire  in  win- 
ter from  the  field  of  action,  they  find  shelter 
in  a  well-protected  refuge.  Such  places  are 
easily  found  in  the  country  chifttiks  of  influ- 
ential beys,  who,  from  motives  of  self-pres- 
ervation or  ignorance  of  their  guests'  ante- 
cedents, allow  their  Albanian  guards  to  har- 
bor the  malefactors  who  venture  to  seek  shel- 
ter under  their  roof. 

The  severe  laws  formerly  existing  in  Tur- 
key for  the  punishment  of  crime,  whereby 
mutilation  was  ordained  in  certain  cases,  are 
no  longer  in  use.  Crime,  according  to  its 
extent  and  the  circumstances  that  surround 
it,  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  a  cer- 
tain period,  or  condemnation  to  death  ;  the 
sentence,  however,  is  seldom  put  into  execu- 
tion except  in  very  bad  cases,  or  when  the 
authorities  are  desirous  of  making  an  exam- 
ple of  severity  in  the  town.  When  a  long 
and  careful  procedure  has  taken  place  before 
both  the  civil  and  religious  courts,  the  Kadi 
decrees  the  sentence,  which  must  be  pre- 
sented to  the  Sultan  for  his  sanction  before 
it  can  be  carried  out.  The  culprit  is  strung 
up  to  some  shop-front  in  the  most  frequented 
part  of  the  bazar,  or  decapitated,  and  his 
head  exposed,  sometimes  for  three  days,  in 
the  market-place. 

I  have  heard  many  stories  of  the  outrages  of 
brigands  during  my  long  residence  in  remote 
and  semi-barbarous  parts  of  the  country.  I 
have  even  been  in  close  contact  with  some, 
and  on  a  friendly  footing,  and  once  escaped 


from  their  pursuit  only  thanks  to  the  swift- 
ness of  a  powerful  horse.  On  two  other  oc- 
casions, yielding  to  necessity  and  in  the  in- 
terests of  self-preservation,  I  accepted  the 
services  of  two  or  three  Albanians  who  were 
suspected  of  being  cut-throats,  instead  of  the 
Government  escort. 

They  were  fine,  hardy  fellows,  with  deep 
scars  on  their  faces,  that  attested  the  lease 
upon  which  they  held  their  life  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  had  disputed  it  with 
others.  They  were  reputed  to  be  as  venture- 
some in  crime  as  they  were  ready  to  sacrifice 
their  lives,  if  need  were,  for  the  preservation 
of  those  intrusted  to  their  care.  I  penetrated 
into  deep  gorges  with  these  men,  and  stop- 
ped in  isolated  and  ill-reputed  khans,  and 
throughout  the  night  slept  as  securely  as  if 
I  had  been  in  my  own  home.  The  worst  of 
men,  like  the  wildest  of  beasts,  has  his  good 
side  ;  the  secret  of  finding  this  out  lies  in 
striking  the  right  chord  ;  put  the  Albanian 
on  his  honor,  and  he  will  never  desert  you  or 
betray  your  trust. 

The  attacks  made  by  brigands  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  locality,  the  nature  of  the  enter- 
prise, and  the  result  desired.  Should  the  at- 
tack be  upon  a  caravan  of  peasants  returning 
home  from  market  or  elsewhere,  they  ai-e 
waylaid,  stripped  of  all  they  possess,  cruelly 
beaten,  'jvounded,  and  sometimes  killed. 
When  the  assault  is  directed  against  a  person 
that  has  been  singled  out  for  them  either  for 
his  wealth  or  other  purposes,  the  assaidt 
made  upon  him  and  his  escort  is  always  of  a 
murderous  nature,  terminating  in  the  inflic- 
tions of  cruel  wounds  or  death. 

The  long  gun  of  the  Albanian  or  the  yata- 
ghans of  his  equally  dreaded  companions  are 
ever  suspended  over  the  heads  of  the  weal- 
thy Chorbadjis  :  when  the  slightest  oppor- 
tunity is  afforded  they  assault  the  villages, 
rob,  murder,  and  carry  off  hostages  in  the  per- 
sons of  young  men  or  boys — the  sons  of  people 
who  are  sufficiently  wealthy  to  redeem  them 
by  the  payment  of  large  ransoms. 

Such  attacks  are  of  not  unfrequent  occur- 
rence, especially  in  troubled  times,  when  the 
ends  of  justice  are  rarely  attained  in  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  criminals  or  the  recovery  of 
lost  property. 

Klieradjis,  the  brave  and  trustworthy  fel- 
lows who  undertake  to  convey  the  goods  of 
the  merchants  from  town  to  town  on  the 
backs  of  their  horses  and  mules,  and  the 
Tatar  couriers,  who  are  intrusted  with  the 
transport  of  sums  of  money,  are  great  temp- 
tations to  brigands.  The  last  attack  on  a 
Kheradji  I  heard  of  took  place  last  summer 
when  he  and  his  companion,  an  Albanian 
Mohammedan,  had  quitted  one  of  the  smaller 
towns  in  the  Vilayet  of  Salonika,  conveying 
a  considerable  sum  of  money  concealed  in  the 
sacks  of  corn  with  which  his  animals  were 
laden.  While  on  the  road,  and  a  short  dis- 
tance from  their  destination,  they  were  sud- 
denly attacked  by  two  brigands,  who 
wounded  the  Christian  Kheradji,  and,  after 
a  struggle,  succeeded  in  disarming  the  Mo- 
hammedan. They  then  searched  the  per- 
sons of  the  two  men,  and  not  finding  the 
expected  booty  proceeded  to  cut  open  the 
sacks  and  abstract  the  money,  after  which 
they  made  off,  leaving  the  unfortunate  Klie- 
radjis to  find  their  way  back  to  the  town  they 
had  left,  and  to  which  both  were  strangers. 

Next  morning  the  Albanian  presented  him- 
self before  the  Medjliss,  or  local  court,  to 
deposit  his  complaint ;  on  looking  round  he 
started,  and  pointing  to  one  of  the  members 
of  the  Bench  exclaimed,  "  By  Allah  and  Mo- 
hammed, I  swear  that  here  is  one  of  the  two 
brigands,  that  attacked  us  yesterday  !  If  any 
one  doubts  my  word  let  this  man's  house  be 
searched,  and  a  jacket  with  a  torn  sleeve  will 
be  found,  to  attest  the  truth  of  my  accusa- 
tion !"  The  culprit,  in  the  midst  of  the  gen- 
eral surprise  and  confusion,  made  his  escape. 
Search  was  made  in  his  house,  and  the  jacket 
described  by  the  Kheradji  found,  but  the 
owner  has  not  since  been  heard  of. 


Another  robbery  of  a  far  more  daring  and 
serious  nature  was  attempted  by  a  gang  of 
Albanians  in  the  autumn  of  1876  in  the  town 
of  Vodena.  The  assailants,  seven  in  num- 
ber, had  been  frequently  noticed  lurking  in 
the  woods  and  gardens  that  lie  in  the  beauti- 
ful plain  by  which  this  picturesque  town  is 
surrounded.  The  brigands  had  marked  out 
the  house  of  one  of  the  wealthy  Chorbadjis 
as  the  object  of  their  attack.  This  man  pos- 
sessed a  certain  amount  of  education,  and 
had  taken  the  precaution  of  building  a  house 
sufficiently  solid  to  protect  himself  and  fam- 
ily and  to  secure  his  treasure.  The  building 
was  not  large  but  well  protected,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  large  court-yard  with  high  walls 
and  a  strong  gate.  The  house-door  was  very 
solid,  and  furnished  with  triple  bolts  ;  and 
the  windows,  opening  on  a  veranda,  were 
well  barred.  The  robbers,  having  planned 
their  attack  and  posted  a  sentinel  at  the  only 
open  end  of  the  street,  proceeded  to  attack 
the  gate.  Finding  it  impossible  to  break  it 
open,  they  undermined  it,  and  entered  the 
yard.  The  first  barrier  thus  passed,  and  per- 
suaded that  an  attempt  on  the  house-door 
would  prove  fruitless,  they  placed  a  ladder 
which  they  found  against  the  veranda,  sup- 
posing that  where  the  Chorbadji  and  his  wife 
slumbered  there  would  their  treasure  be. 
They  set  to  work  at  the  window  of  this 
chamber,  attempting  to  demolish  the  iron 
bars. 

The  night  was  dark  and  stormy  and  the 
rain  fell  heavily,  but  the  unconscious  slum- 
berers  were  not  awakened  for  some  time.  At 
length  the  wife  of  the  Chorbadji,  startled  by 
the  unaccustomed  noise  at  the  window, 
aroused  her  husband  and  acquainted  him 
with  what  was  going  on.  His  coolness  and 
courage  were  quite  equal  to  the  occasion,  and 
after  a  short  consultation  with  his  wife  he  de- 
cided upon  using  the  fire-arms  that  hung 
against  the  wall.  It  was  a  terrible  moment 
for  both.  Standing  a  little  on  one  side,  and 
protected  by  the  darkness  of  the  room,  they 
could  see  several  men  trying  to  force  the 
bars.  To  face  these  men  openly  was  certain 
death,  and  it  was  hard  to  get  a  good  aim  at 
them.  He  decided  finally  to  attempt  a  shot, 
first  calling  out  in  a  determined  voice,  "  Who 
goes  there  ?  Let  him  leave  the  spot,  or  he  is 
a  dead  man  I" 

This  appeal,  however,  instead  of  having 
the  desired  effect,  stimulated  the  energy  of 
the  brigands,  who,  forming  into  two  bands, 
now  attacked  the  door  of  the  house  as  well, 
and  were  making  strenuous  efforts  to  open 
it.  The  Chorbadji,  cautiously  advancing  to- 
wards the  side  of  the  window,  and  screened 
by  the  projecting  walls,  fired  his  pistol  and 
shot  one  of  the  Albanians  dead  who  stood  on 
the  ladder  ;  another  mounted,  and  a  second 
shot  stretched  him  wounded  on  the  floor  of 
the  veranda.  The  rest,  whose  shots  into  the 
room  proved  ineffective,  abandoned  the  win- 
dow and  went  to  the  door,  at  which  they  con- 
tinued pounding  with  the  fury  of  fiends,  but 
as  yet  to  no  effect. 

In  the  mean  time  the  bravo  couple,  freed 
from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  their  enemies, 
struck  a  light,  and  while  the  husband  was 
pouring  his  fire  upon  them  the  wife  loaded 
his  pistols.  A  girl  who  slept  in  the  next  room 
opened  her  window  and  called  loudly  for 
help,  but  was  nearly  paying  for  her  rashness 
with  her  life,  as  one  of  the  brigands  in  the 
yard  fired  at  her,  and  the  ball  struck  the  iron 
bar  against  which  her  head  was  pressed,  but 
glanced  off. 

The  Albanians,  after  some  further  efforts, 
began  to  fear  the  -consequences  of  the  alarm 
the  affray  was  beginning  to  excite  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  bethought  themselves  of 
making  good  their  retreat.  But  previously 
to  doiug  so  they  cut  off  the  head  of  their 
dead  comrade  to  avoid  detection,  and  carried 
it  away  with  them,  together  with  their 
wounded.  A  few  weeks  subsequently  the 
assault  was  renewed,  but  the  owner  was  well 
prepared  to   receive  and  repel  it,  without, 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


37 


however,  being  able  to  obtain  definite  peace 
and  security  for  his  home. 

The  Albanians,  doubly  incensed  against 
him  for  the  loss  of  their  comrade  and  their 
disappointment  at  not  having  been  able  to 
effect  their  purpose,  sent  threatening  mes- 
sages to  the  Chorbadji,  and  claimed  low.  for 
the  widow  and  children  of  the  slain  brigand, 
or  in  lieu  thereof  himself  to  pay  the  debt 
with  his  life.  The  poor  man,  being  hard 
pressed,  appealed  to  the  Kaimakam,  or  sub- 
governor  of  the  town,  for  protection  ;  but 
this  dignitary,  being  an  Albanian,  old  and 
void  of  energy,  and  incapable  of  bringing 
the  culprits  to  justice,  offered  his  services  as 
peacemaker  between  the  two  parties,  and 
proposed  a  compromise  for  half  that  sum. 
The  Chorbadji  refused  to  pay  anything,  and 
the  Albanians  renewed  their  threats.  The 
persecuted  man  in  the  mean  time  had  to  re- 
main in-doors  on  the  pretext  of  ill-health,  and 
only  expects  to  be  able  to  regain  his  liberty 
when  affairs  settle  and  better  times  come. 

Among  the  many  sad  cases  of  children  and 
youths  being  carried  off  from  the  villages, 
which  have  become  so  prevalent  during  these 
disordered  times,  I  may  relate  one  which  hap- 
pened last  year,  in  the  district  of  Caterina, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olympus.  The  victim 
was  a  fine  promising  young  Greek  of  two-and- 
twenty,  an  only  son,  doted  upon  by  a  grief- 
stricken  mother,  whose  husband  had  been 
killed  by  brigands.  This  youth  was  suddenly 
attacked  as  he  was  returning  home,  carried 
off,  and  never  more  heard  of.  The  unfortu- 
nate mother,  distracted  with  grief,  and 
prompted  by  mingled  hope  and  despair,  wan- 
dered up  to  the  mountains,  and  for  days  was 
seen  by  the  shepherds  roaming  about  and 
calling  for  her  son.  It  was  thought  that  he 
had  been  put  to  death  in  consequence  of  his 
father  having  killed  one  of  the  brigands  that 
had  attacked  him. 

I  have  not  included  the  Circassians  as 
members  of  this  general  fraternity  of  brig- 
ands, because  they  form  a  distinct  set,  who, 
ever  since  their  arrival  in  this  country,  have 
been  notorious  for  theft  and  crime  and  out- 
rage. 

Although  political  brigandage  has  ceased 
to  exercise  its  former  influence  in  the  coun- 
try, it  has  in  a  small  degree  again  made  its 
appearance  as  an  inseparable  incident  of  war 
and  internal  trouble.  A  few  bands,  muster- 
ing from  thirty  to  fifty  men,  have  lately  made 
their  appearance  indifferent  parts  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey.  They  are  composed  of  Greek 
desperadoes,  supposed  to  be  the  agents  of  an 
'Eraipeia,  or  secret  society  of  violent  Greek 
patriots  holding  extreme  views.  Their  object 
in  maintaining  these  Klephts  in  different 
localities  is  that  of  having  them  in  readiness 
in  case  of  an  insurrection  among  the  discon- 
tented peasantry.  One  or  two  of  these  bands 
have  been  stationed  since  last  spring  in  the 
district  of  Caterina.  They  have  not  been 
known  to  molest  any  one  ;  but  their  pres- 
ence somewhat  kept  in  check  the  Albanian 
brigands  and  prevented  them  devastating  the 
Greek  villages.  The  Klephts  obtained  their 
provisions  from  the  peasants,  for  which  they 
regularly  and  scrupulously  paid.  The  Eteria 
that  supports  these  individuals  is  disapproved 
of  by  the  Greek  authorities,  who  consider  it 
an  element  of  disorder  and  trouble. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

CEREMONIES  OF  BIRTH  AND  INFANCY. 


i 


The  Birth  of  a  Turkish  Child— Midwives— Mummi- 
fication of  the  Baby— Amulets— The  State  Bedstead- 
Naming  the  Child— Invalid  Diet— Reception  of 
Friends  and  Strangers— Treatment  of  the  Baby— Evil 
Eye,  and  Remedies  thereagainst — Bathing  of  Mother 
and  Child— Daubing  of  the  Mother  and  Refreshment 
of  the  Guests—  The  Cradle— Opia'es  given  to  Children 
—Treatment  of  Baby  Illnesses— Food— Deaths  from 
Over-eating— Late  Weaning— Circumcision— Proces- 
sion—Rejoicings— Hospitality— The  Diseases  of 
Childhood  and  their  Treatment  in  Turkey— Fosterage 
—Attempted  Census— Frequent  Deaths  of  Mothers- 
Births  among  the  Jews— Armenian  Birth  Ceremonies 
—Births  among  the  Greeks— Remains  of  Ancient 
Customs— The  Christening— Triple  Immersion— Dedi- 


cation   of  Flair— Confirmation     by    Anointing— Con-  ] 
scientious  Performance  of  the  Duties  of  Sponsors — 
Hardiness  of  Bulgarian  Women— Their  Indifference  I 
to    Lying-in— Their  Sorrows— Survival  only  of    the 
Fittest— A  Bulgarian  and  her  Cow— Doctoring  Chil- 
dren. 

The  birth  of  a  Turkish  child  is  left  very 
much  to  nature,  slightly  aided  by  the  unsci- 
entific assistance  of  the  Ebe  Kadin  or  mid- 
wives,  who  are  very  numerous  in  the  coun- 
try, recruited  from  the  lower  strata  of  socie- 
ty, and  belonging  to  all  creeds.  They  are 
ignorant,  uneducated,  and  possess  not  the 
most  rudimentary  knowledge  of  medicine  or 
of  the  surgical  art.  Some  of  these  women, 
however,  from  long  experience  and  natural 
savoir  foure,  acquire  a  certain  repute  for  abil- 
ity, well  justified  by  the  success  they  some- 
times obtain  in  difficult  cases.  All  ffies  who 
have  attained  this  height  of  superiority  are 
much  esteemed  in  Turkish  society  ;  they  are 
admitted  into  elevated  circles,  and  are  en- 
titled to  special  marks  of  honor  and  attention. 

As  soon  as  a  Turkish  child  is  born  it  is  en- 
veloped in  a  tiny  chemise  and  Libarde,  or 
quilted  jacket  of  many  colors,  bound  with  a 
swathe  ;  its  limbs  are  pulled  straight  down, 
and  then  imprisoned  in  a  number  of  quilted 
wrappers  and  tightly  bandaged  all  over  by 
another  swathe,  giving  the  unfortunate 
mummified  being  the  appearance  of  a  Bo- 
logna sausage.  A  red  silk  cap  is  placed  on 
the  head,  ornamented  with  a  pearl  tassel,  one 
or  two  fine  gold  coins,  and  a  number  of  amu- 
lets and  charms  against  the  evil  eye. 

These  objects  consist  of  a  head  of  garlic,  a 
piece  of  alum,  a  copy  of  one  or  two  verses  of 
the  Koran  plaited  in  little  triangles  and  sewn 
in  bits  of  blue  cloth,  and  a  number  of  blue 
glass  ornaments  in  the  shape  of  hands,  horse- 
shoes, etc.  The  baby,  thus  decked  out,  is 
next  placed  in  a  fine  square  quilted  covering, 
one  corner  of  which  forms  a  hood,  the  other 
three  being  crossed  over  its  body  ;  a  red 
gauze  veil,  thrown  over  the  whole,  complet- 
ing its  toilette.  After  the  child's  birth  a 
state  couch  is  prepared  on  a  bedstead  used  I 
for  the  occasion,  decorated  with  the  richest 
silks,  the  heaviest  gold  embroideries,  and  the  ' 
finest  gau7.es  of  the  East.  The  bed  is  first 
covered  with  a  gauze  sheet,  worked  with 
gold  threads  ;  five  or  six  long  pillows  of  vari- 
ous colored  silks,  covered  with  richly-em- 
broidered pillow-cases,  open  at  the  ends,  oc- 
cupy the  head  and  one  side  of  the  couch  ; 
one  or  two  yorgans,  or  quilted  coverlets, 
heavily  laden  with  gold  embroidery,  occasion- 
ally mixed  with  pearls  and  precious  stones 
and  the  under-sides  lined  with  gauze  sheets, 
are  thrown  over  it.  On  this  bed  of  state  the 
happy  mother  is  placed,  at  no  small  sacrifice 
of  ease  and  comfort.  Her  head  is  encircled 
with  a  red  Fotoz,  or  scarf,  ornamented  with  a 
bunch  of  charms  similar  to  that  placed  on 
the  head  of  the  child,  the  garlic  insinuating 
its  head  through  the  red  veil  that  falls  on  the 
temples.  A  stick,  surmounted  by  an  onion, 
is  placed  in  one  corner  of  the  room,  against 
the  wall. 

When  these  preliminary  arrangements  have 
been  made,  the  husband  is  admitted,  who, 
after  felicitating  his  wife  on  the  happy  event, 
has  his  offspring  put  into  his  arms  ;  he  at 
once  carries  it  behind  the  door,  and  after 
muttering  a  short  prayer,  shouts  three  times 
into  the  baby's  ear  the  name  chosen  for  it. 
He  then  gives  back  the  infant  to  its  mother, 
and  quits  the  room.* 

For  several  days  (the  exact  time  depending 
upon  the  mother's  health)  water,  either  for 
drinking  or  ablutionary  purposes,  is  not 
comprised  in  the  regime  imposed  upon  the 
invalid,  whose  lips  may  be  parched  with 
thirst,  but  not  a  drop  of  water  is  given  to 
her.  Sherbet,  made  from  a  kind  of  candied 
sugar  and  spices,  varied  by  a  tisane  extract- 
ed from  the  maidenhair  fern,  is  the  only 
drink  administered.  Turkish  ladies,  after 
confinement,  get  little  rest ;  the  moment  the 


*  Should  the  father  be  unacquainted  with  the  form 
of  prayer,  an  Imam  is  called  in,  who  reads  the  prayer 
over  the  infant,  outside  the  door. 


event  is  known,  relations,  friends,  and  neigh- 
bors crowd  in,  and  are  at  once  permittea  to 
enter  the  chamber  and  partake  of  sherbet, 
sweets,  and  coffee,  not  even  abstaining  from 
their  inveterate  habit  of  smoking  cigarettes 

On  the  second  day  a  great  quantity  of  this 
sherbet  is  prepared,  and  bottles  of  it  sent  to 
friends  and  acquaintances  by  Musdadjis* 
also  an  invitation  to  the  Djcmiet,  or  recep- 
tion held  on  the  third  day.  The  house  on 
this  occasion  is  thrown  open  to  visitors,  in- 
vited or  uninvited.  Dinner  is  served  to  the 
former,  and  sherbet  to  the  latter  Bands  of 
music  are  in  attendance  to  receive  and  ac- 
company upstairs  the  most  distinguished 
guests,  who  arrive  in  groups,  preceded  by 
servants  bearing  baskets  of  sweets  prettily 
got  up  with  flowers  and  gilt  paper  and  envel- 
oped in  gauze  tied  up  with  ribbons. 

The  guests  are  first  conducted  into  an  ante- 
chamber, where  they  are  divested  of  their 
Fatftmaks  and  Feridjes  (veils  and  cloaks)  pre- 
viously to  being  introduced  to  the  presence 
of  the  invalid.  The  latter  kisses  the  hands 
of  all  the  elderly  hanoums,  who  say  to  her, 
"Mashallah,  ermuli  kaduuli  olsoun. "  \  Very 
little  notice  is  taken  of  /he  baby,  and  even 
then  only  disparaging  remarks  are  made 
about  it,  both  by  relatives  and  guests,  such 
as  Murdar  (dirty),  Ghirkin  (ugly),  Yaramaz 
(naughty).  If  looked  at  it  is  immediately 
spat  upon,  and  then  left  to  slumber  in  inno- 
cent unconsciousness  of  the  undeserved  abuse 
it  has  received.  Abusive  and  false  epithets 
arc  employed  by  Turkish  women  under  all 
circumstances  worthy  of  inviting  praise  or 
admiration,  in  order  to  counteract  the  sup- 
position of  ill-feeling  or  malice  underlying 
the  honeyed  words  of  the  speaker,  which  are 
sure  to  be  turned  against  her  in  case  of  any 
accident  or  evil  happening  to  the  subject  of 
the  conversation. 

As  soon  as  the  visitors  have  departed  a  few 
cloves  are  thrown  into  the  brazier,  to  test 
whether  anv  ill  effects  of  the  evil  eye  have 
been  left  behind.  Should  the  cloves  happen 
to  burst  in  burning,  the  inference  Is  drawn 
that  the  evil  eye  has  exerted  its  influence  ; 
the  consequences  of  which  can  only  be  avert- 
ed by  some  hair  from  the  heads  of  the 
mother  and  child  being  cut  off  and  burnt 
with  the  view  of  fumigating  the  unfortunate 
victims  with  the  noxious  vapor.  Prayers 
and  sundry  incantations,  intermingled  with 
blowings  and  spittings,  are  made  over  the 
heads  of  the  stricken  creatures,  and  only  de- 
sisted from  when  a  fit  of  yawning  proclaims 
that  the  ill  effects  of  the  Nazar  (evil  eye)  have 
been  finally  banished. 

The  party  suspected  of  having  given  the 
Xazar  is  next  surreptitiously  visited  by  some 
old  woman,  who  manages  to  possess  herself 
of  a  scrap  of  some  part  of  the  suspected  per- 
son's dress,  with  which  a  second  fumigation 
is  made. 

Among  the  lower  orders,  coffee,  sugar,  and 
other  provisions  frequently  replace  the  bas- 
kets of  sweets  ;  and  if  the  father  of  the  child 
is  an  official,  his  superior  and  subordinates 
may  accompany  these  with  gifts  of  value. 
The  poor,  who  cannot  afford  to  give  dinners, 
content  themselves  with  offering  sherbet  and 
coffee  to  their  visitors.  With  the  poor  the 
third,  and  with  the  rich  the.  eighth,  day  is 
appointed  for  the  bathing  of  the  mother  and 
child.  There  is  a  curious  but  deeply-rooted 
superstition,  accepted  by  all  Turkish  women, 
which  imposes  upon  them  the  necessity  of 
never  leaving  the  mother  and  child  alone,  for 
fear  they  should  become  Albalghan  mish,  pos- 
sessed by  the  Peris.  The  red  scarves  and 
veils  are,  I  believe,  also  used  as  preservatives 
against  this  imaginary  evil.  When  a  poor 
person  is  unavoidably  left  alone,  a  broom  is 
placed  by  the  bedside  to  mount  guard  over 
her  and  her  child. 

If  the  ceremony  of  the  bath,  takes  place  in 
the  house,  the  Ebe  Kadin  and  a  number  of 

*  Old  women,  whose  mission  it  is  to  he  the  bearer 
of  invitations  to  all  ceremonies. 
t  Wonderful !    Let  it  bo  long-lived  and  happy  1 


38 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


friends  are  invited  to  join  the  bathers  and 
partake  of  luncheon  or  some  other  refresh- 
ment. When  the  ceremony  is  carried  out  at 
the  public  bath,  the  company  march  there  in 
procession,  headed  by  the  Ebe  Kadin  carry- 
ing the  baby.  Each  family  sends  a  carpet 
and  the  bathing  linen  tied  up  in  a  bundle, 
covered  with  embroidery  and  pearls  some- 
times amounting  in  value  to  30?.  or  40?.  The 
mother  and  child  are  naturally  the  chief  ob- 
jects of  attention.  The  former,  divested  of 
her  clothing,  is  wrapped  in  her  silk  scarf 
offered  to  her  by  the  Ilammamji  Hannum  I 
(mistress  of  the  bath),  puts  on  a  pair  of  high 
pattens  worked  with  silver,  and  is  led  into 
the  inner  bath,  supported  on  one  side  by  the 
Hammamji  and  on  the  other  by  some  friend, 
the  baby  in  the  charge  of  the  Ebe  Kadin 
bringing  up  the  rear.  Hot  water  is  thrown 
over  it.  and  it  is  rubbed  and  scrubbed,  keep- 
ing the  company  alive  with  its  screams  of 
distress.  This  concluded,  the  infant  is  car- 
ried out,  and  its  mother  taken  in  hand  by  her 
Ebe  Kadin,  who.  before  commencing  opera- 
tions, throws  a  bunch  of  keys  into  the  basin, 
muttering  some  prayers,  and  then  blows 
three  times  into  it.  A  few  pails  of  water  are 
thrown  over  the  bather,  and  after  the  wash- 
ing of  the  head  and  sundry  manipulations 
have  been  performed  she  is  led  to  the  centre 
platform,  where  she  is  placed  in  a  reclining 
position,  with  her  head  resting  on  a  silver 
bowl.  A  mixture  of  honey,  spices,  and  aro 
matics,  forming  a  brownish  mess,  is  thickly 
besmeared  all  over  her  body,  and  allowed  to 
remain  about  an  hour  Her  friends  surround 
her  during  this  tedious  process,  and  amuse 
her  with  songs  and  lively  conversation,  every 
now  and  then  transferring  some  of  this  com- 
position from  her  body  to  their  mouths  with 
their  lingers.  The  spicy  coating  thus  fin- 
gered gives  to  the  lady  a  singular  zebra  like 
appearance  ;  but,  though  not  becoming,  it  is 
believed  to  possess  very  strengthening  and 
reviving  powers,  and  it  is  considered  a  good 
augury  even  to  get  only  a  taste  of  it.  What 
remains  df  this  mixture  after  the  friends  have 
been  sufficiently  regaled  is  washed  off. 

The  lady,  no  doubt  greatly  benefited  by 
this  application,  is  then  wrapped  in  her  bath- 
ing dress,  the  borders  of  which  are  worked 
witli  gold,  and  is  ready  to  leave  the  bath. 
Previous  to  doing  so,  she  must  make  a  round 
of  the  baths,  and  kiss  the  hands  of  all  the 
elderly  ladies,  who  say  to  her  in  return  "  shif- 
alou  olsoun."  *  Refreshments  are  offered  in 
abundance  to  the  guests  during  the  ceremo- 
ny, which  lasts  the  greater  part  of  the  day. 
These  formalities  are  only  de  rigueur  at  the 
birth  of  the  first  child  ;  at  other  times  they 
are  optional. 

The  cradle  (beshik)  plays  a  great  part  in  the 
first  stage  of  baby  existence.  It  is  a  very 
strange  arrangement,  and,  like  many  Tur 
kish  things  and  customs,  not  very  easy  to 
describe.  It  is  a  long,  narrow,  wooden  box 
fixed  upon  two  rockers,  the  ends  of  which 
rise  a  foot  and  a  half  above  the  sides,  and 
are  connected  at  their  summits  by  a  strong 
rail,  which  serves  as  a  support  to  the  nurse 
when  giving  nourishment  to  the  child.  The 
mattress  is  hard  and  no  pillow  is  allowed. 
The  baby  lies  on  its  back  with  its  arms 
straight  down  by  its  sides,  its  legs  drawn 
down,  and  toes  turned  in. 

It  is  kept  in  this  position  by  a  swathe, 
•which  bandages  the  child  all  over  to  the  cra- 
dle. A  small  cushion  is  placed  on  the  chest, 
and  another  on  the  knees  of  the  child,  to  keep 
it  in  position  and  prevent  the  bandage  from 
hurting  it.  The  infant  thus  secured  becomes 
a  perfect  fixture,  the  head  being  the  only  mem- 
ber allowed  the  liberty  of  moving  from  side 
to  side.  This  strange  contrivance  (called  the 
kundak)  has  a  very  distorting  effect,  and  is 
one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  want  of 
symmetry  in  the  lower  limbs  of  the  Turks  and 
of  the  Armenians  (who  are  reared  in  the  same 


*  The  Italian  expression  "  Multi  Saluti"  is  the 
nearest  approach  to  a  correct  Interpretation  of  this 
word. 


fashion),  who  are,  as  a  rule,  bow-legged  and 
turn  their  toes  in.  I  believe  the  kundak  sys- 
tem is  going  out  of  fashion  among  the  higher 
classes,  but  it  is  still  resorted  to  by  the  lower, 
who  find  it  extremely  convenient  on  account 
of  the  leisure  it  affords  to  the  mother.  The 
child,  thus  disposed  of,  is  left  in  the  cradle 
for  five  or  six  hours  at  a  time  ;  it  is  occasion- 
ally nursed,  and  in  the  intervals  sucks  an  j 
emsik  composed  of  masticated  bread  and  ! 
sugar,  or  some  Rahat  lakoum  (Turkish  de- 
light), tied  up  in  a  piece  of  muslin. 

All  Turkish  mothers  and  many  Armenians 
of  the  lowerorders  administer  strong  sleeping 
draughts,  generally  of  opium,  poppy-head, 
or  theriac,  to  their  infants  ;  some  carry  the 
abuse  of  these  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
children  appear  always  in  a  drowsy  state, 
the  countenance  pale,  the  eyelids  half  closed, 
the  pupils  of  the  eyes  contracted,  the  lips 
parched  and  dry,  and  a  peculiar  hazy  ex- 
pression fixed  upon  the  face  ;  all  the  move- 
ments are  lethargic,  in  marked  contrast  to 
the  sprightly  motion  of  a  healthy  European 
child.  The  natural  baby-cry  is  replaced  by  a 
low  moan,  and  no  eagerness  is  shown  for  the 
mother's  milk,  only  an  inclination  to  remain 
listless  and  inactive.  I  have  known  mothers 
give  as  many  as  five  opium  pills  to  a  restless 
child  in  one  night.  Besides  the  stupefying 
effect  of  these  opiates  on  the  brain,  they  are 
highly  injurious  to  the  digestive  organs,  oc- 
casioning constipation,  which,  treated  under 
the  designation  of  sangyu  (colics),  is  increased 
by  frequent  employment  of  heating  medi- 
cines, such  as  spirits  of  mint,  camomile,  or 
aniseed.  A  Turkish  mother  never  thinks  of 
giving  her  child  an  aperient ;  almond  oil  is 
the  nearest  approach  to  a  remedy  of  this  kind. 

Sleeplessness,  uneasiness,  or  slight  indis- 
position in  babies  is  generally  put  down  to 
the  effects  of  the  evil  eye.  Any  old  woman, 
whose  nefs,  or  breath,  is  considered  most  effi- 
cacious, is  called  in.  She  takes  hold  of  the 
child,  mutters  prayers  over  it,  exercising  a 
sort  of  mesmeric  influence,  and  blowing  it  at 
intervals,  a  remedy  that  results  in  soothing 
the  child  to  sleep  for  a  while.  Should  her 
breathing  powers  prove  inefficacious,  the 
Sheikh  (whose  nefs  is  held  in  the  highest  es- 
teem) is  called  in.  The  magnetizing  powers 
of  the  latter  are  increased  by  the  addition  of 
a  muska  (amulet)  hung  round  the  neck  of  the 
child,  for  which  a  shilling  is  paid.  When 
all  these  remedies  prove  unavailing,  the  doc- 
tor is  applied  to,  but  his  advice,  generally  lit- 
tle understood  and  less  credited,  is  never 
thoroughly  carried  out.  The  Turks  have  no 
faith  in  medicine  or  doctors—' '  kismet ' '  over- 
rides all  such  human  efforts. 

No  regime  is  followed  with  regard  to  the 
food  of  a  child.  It  is  allowed  to  eat  what- 
ever it  can  get  hold  of,  and  digest  it  as  best  it 
can.  The  excesses  into  which  children  are 
liable  to  fall  by  the  indulgence  of  sweets  and 
other  unwholesome  food  often  lead  to  seri- 
ous consequences.  I  have  seen  a  splendid 
child  two  years  old  die,  after  an  illness  of 
seven  hours,  from  indigestion  caused  by  eat- 
ing an  undue  quantity  of  boiled  Indian  corn, 
a  favorite  dish  among  Turkish  children.  I 
have  also  witnessed  two  other  similarly  pain- 
ful cases  ;  one  of  a  girl  nine  years  of  age, 
who,  after  consuming  a  large  quantity  of 
heavy  pastry,  was  found  dead,  crouched  up 
in  a  corner  of  a  room  ;  the  other  of  a  boy 
seven  years  old,  whose  partiality  for  pickles 
brought  on  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  from 
which,  after  forty  days,  he  died. 

Turkish  children  are  nursed  up  to  the  age 
of  eighteen  months,  and  even  to  three  years. 
Some  foolish  mothers  will  nurse  their  chil- 
dren as  long  as  Nature  supplies  them  with 
the  necessary  nourishment.  I  knew  a  boy 
of  five  years  of  age  who  was  still  being 
nursed.  The  strangest  part  of  this  case  was 
that  his  foster-mother,  a  woman  with  whom 
I  was  personally  acquainted,  had  never  had  a 
child  of  her  own,  but,  determining  to  partici- 
pate in  part  in  the  sweets  of  maternity,  had 
adopted  a  baby,    which  she  perseveringly 


nursed  till   Nature  by  some  strange  freak 
provided  her  with  milk  ! 

Weaning  is  perhaps  the  most  critical  peri- 
od of  babyhood.  A  little  basket  is  provided 
by  the  tender  parents,  into  which  all  kinds 
of  fruits  iind  sweets  are  heaped,  and  left  at 
the  child's  disposal  to  eat  as  much  as  it  likes. 
The  consequence  of  this  injurious  custom  is 
the  complete  derangement  and  distension  of 
the  stomach,  the  effects  of  which  are  often 
noticeable  in  after-life.  Rice  and  starch, 
boiled  in  water,  are  the  ingredients  Turkish 
women  sometimes  use  for  baby-food,  feed- 
ing them  invariably  with  their  fingers  ;  but 
it  is  impossible  to  say  what  they  do  or  do  not 
feed  them  with,  for  there  is  no  notion  in 
Turkey  of  a  regular  system  for  bringing  up 
children. 

A  rite  of  childhood  which  must  not  be 
passed  over,  since  it  is  accompanied  by  curi- 
ous ceremonies,  is  circumcision.  The  obli- 
gatory duty  of  parents  in  this  matter  falls 
heavily  on  the  middle  classes  and  entails 
great  expense  upon  the  budget  of  the  wealthy. 
When  a  Turk  of  some  standing  is  expected 
to  have  a.  Sunnet  Duhun,  the  coming  event  is 
watched  for  by  a  number  of  persons  who 
cannot  afford  individually  to  undertake  the 
responsibility  of  the  outlay  the  ceremony 
would  involve.  All  such  individuals  send  in 
the  names  of  their  children,  begging  that 
they  might  be  allowed  to  participate  in  the 
ceremonial  rite.  The  grandee  appealed  to 
fixes  the  number  of  these  according  to  his 
means  or  his  generosity.  When  the  ceremo- 
ny takes  place  in  the  imperial  palace,  the 
Sultans  have  not  the  liberty  of  limiting  the 
number  of  applicants,  which  sometimes 
amounts  to  thousands,  and  occasions  a  very 
heavy  drain  upon  the  treasury. 

The  Sunnet  Duhun  begins  on  a  Monday 
and  lasts  a  whole  week.  The  ages  of  the 
candidates  range  from  four  to  ten  years. 
The  boys  are  sent  to  the  bath,  where  the  un- 
cropped  tufts  of  hair  left  on  the  crown  of 
their  heads  are  plaited  with  gold  threads  al- 
lowed to  hang  down  their  backs  up  to  the 
moment  of  initiation.  The  chief  candidate 
is  provided  with  a  suit  of  clothes  richly 
worked  with  gold  and  ornamented  on  the 
breast  with  jewels  in  the  shape  of  a  shield  ; 
his  fez  is  also  entirely  covered  with  jewels. 
The  number  of  precious  ornaments  necessary 
for  the  ceremony  is  so  great  that  they  have 
in  part  to  be  borrowed  from  relatives  and 
friends,  who  are  in  duty  bound  to  lend  them. 
The  caps  and  coats  of  all  the  minor  aspirants 
are  equally  studded  witli  gems.  They  are 
provided  with  complete  suits  of  clothes  by 
the  family  in  whose  house  the  Sunnet  Duhun 
is  held,  by  whom  also  all  other  expenses 
connected  with  the  ceremony  are  defrayed. 

On  the  Monday,  the  youths  decked  out  in 
their  parade  costumes,  and  led  by  some  old 
ladies,  make  a  round  of  calls  at  the  harems 
and  invite  their  friends  for  the  coming  event ; 
Monday  and  Tuesday  being  dedicated  to  a 
series  of  entertainments  given  in  the  Selamlik, 
where  hospitality  is  largely  extended  to  the 
poor  as  well  as  the  rich.  Wednesday  and 
Thursday  are  reserved  to  the  Haremlik, 
where  great  rejoicings  take  place,  enlivened 
by  bands  of  music  and  dancing  girls.  On 
the  morning  of  the  latter  day  the  ladies  busy 
themselves  in  arranging  the  state  bed,  as 
well  as  a  number  of  others  of  more  modest 
appearance.  The  boys,  in  the  mean  time, 
mounted  upon  richly-caparisoned  steeds  and 
accompanied  by  their  Hodjas,  the  family 
barber,  and  some  friends,  and  preceded  by 
music,  pass  in  procession  through  the  town. 
On  returning  home  the  party  is  received  at 
the  door  by  the  parents  of  the  boys.  The 
father  of  the  principal  candidate  takes  the 
lead  and  stands  by  the  side  of  the  stepping- 
block,  the  barber  and  Hodja  taking  their 
places  by  his  side.  The  horse  of  the  young 
bey  is  brought  round,  and  the  hand  of  the 
father,  extended  to  help  him  to  dismount,  is 
stayed  for  a  moment  by  that  of  the  Hodja, 
who  solemnly  asks  him,  "  With  what  gift 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


39 


hast  thou  endowed  thy  son?"  The  parent 
then  declares  the  present  intended  for  his 
Bon,  which  may  consist  of  landed  property 
or  any  object  of  value  accordingto  his  means, 
and  then  assists  him  to  dismount.  The  other 
hoys  follow,  each  claiming  and  receiving  a 
gift  from  his  father  or  nearest  of  kin.  Should 
any  of  the  boys  be  destitute  of  relatives,  the 
owner  of  the  house  takes  the  father's  place 
and  portions  him. 

The  children  are  then  taken  to  the  Harem- 
lik,  where  they  remain  until  evening,  when 
they  return  to  the  Selamlik  and  do  not  again 
Bee  their  mothers  till  the  morning  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  ceremony,  when  they  are  car- 
ried to  the  Haremlik  and  placed  upon  the 
beds  prepared  for  them.  The  entertainments 
this  day  are  carried  on  in  both  departments. 
The  children  are  visited  by  all  their  friends 
and  relations,  who  offer  them  money  and 
other  presents  ;  the  ladies  every  now  and 
then  disappearing  in  order  to  allow  the  gen- 
tlemen to  enter  and  bring  their  offerings. 
The  money  and  gifts  collected  on  these  occa- 
sions sometimes  amount  to  considerable  sums. 
The  Hodja  and  barber  are  equally  favored. 
The  Musda4ji  receives  a  gold  piece  from  the 
mother  on  announcing  to  her  the  completion 
of  the  sacred  rite. 

Every  effort  is  made  in  the  harem  to  amuse 
and  please  the  children,  and  beguile  the  time 
for  them  till  evening,  when  the  fatigue  and 
feverish  excitement  of  the  day  begin  to  tell 
upon  them,  and  they  show  signs  of  weari- 
ness, the  signal  for  the  break-up  of  the  party. 
On  the  next  day  the  boys  are  taken  home  by 
their  relatives,  but  the  entertainments  are 
continued  in  the  principal  house  till  the  fol- 
lowing Monday. 

The  Turks,  hospitable  on  all  occasions,  are 
particularly  so  on  this,  and  consider  it  a  re- 
ligious duty  to  show  special  regard  and  atten- 
tion to  the  poor  and  destit  lite. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  a  definite  idea  of  the 
expense  incurred  by  this  ceremony  among 
the  rich.  The  lowest  estimate  among  the 
middle  classes,  who  limit  it  to  one  day, 
would  be  from  10J.  to  12J.,  while  the  poor 
are  enriched  by  it  to  the  extent  of  %l.  or  31. 

Turkish  children  are  subject  to  much  the 
same  diseases  as  those  of  other  nations.  The 
most  terrible  of  these  used  to  be  small-pox, 
which  committed  fearful  ravages,  carrying 
off  great  numbers,  and  leaving  its  mark  in 
blindness  or  some  other  organic  defect  in 
those  who  survived  it.  Its  r.ivages,  how- 
ever, have  greatly  diminished  since  the  in- 
troduction of  vaccination,  now  pretty  gen- 
erally adopted  throughout  the  country. 
Teething,  measles,  whooping-cough,  scarla- 
tina, and  low  intermittent  fevers  are  the 
principal  maladies  prevalent  among  Turkish 
children.  A  doctor  is  rarely  called  in  ;  the 
treatment  of'the  invalid  is  left  to  the  moth- 
er's instincts,  aided  by  some  old  woman's 
doubtful  pharmacopoeia  and  the  saintly  in- 
fluence of  IIodjas,whose  superstitious  rites  are 
firmly  believed  in  by  the  applicants.  Diph- 
theria, unknown  in  the  country  until  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Circassian  immigrants,  may  also 
be  classed  among  the  prevalent  infantile  mal- 
adies ;  fortunately  it  has  seldom  been  known 
to  rage  as  an  epidemic,  otherwise  its  ravages 
would  be  incalculable  by  reason  of  the  entire 
disregard  of  quarantine  laws. 

Mortality,  however,  among  Turkish  chil- 
dren is  considerable,  and  one  of  the  causes 
why  large  families  are  so  rarely  to  be  met 
with.  A  bey  of  Serres,  for  instance,  pos- 
sessed of  a  goodly  number  of  wives,  who 
had  borne  him  about  fifty  children,  saw  only 
seven  of  them  live  to  attain  manhood. 

In  wealthy  families  a  wet-nurse  is  engaged, 
called  Sut  nana  (foster-mother),  who  enjoys 
great  privileges,  both  during  the  time  she 
serves  and  afterwards.  Her  own  child  be- 
comes the  Sut  kardash  (foster-brother)  of  her 
nursling,  a  bond  of  relationship  recognized 
throughlife,  and  allowing  the  foster-children, 
if  of  different  sexes,  to  set  aside,  if  they 
choose,  the  law  of  Namekhram,  and  see  each 


other  freely.  Besides  the  foster  mother,  a 
Dadi,  or  nursemaid,  is  at  once  appointed  to  at- 
tend upon  a  child  of  rank.  She  has  the  care 
of  its  wardrobe,  and  upon  her  devolves  the 
duty  of  sleeping  near  the  cradle. 

Correct  statistical  information  of  births 
cannot  be  obtained,  as  no  registration  exists. 
Census  regulations  were  for  the  first  time 
introduced  into  the  country  by  Sultan  Mah- 
moud,  and  they  have  been  but  imperfectly 
carried  out  by  his  successors.  During  Sul- 
tan Abdul-Medjid's  lifetime  a  census  of  the 
population  (excluding  women)  was  made,  but 
the  Mohammedans,  fearing  the  consequences 
in  the  conscription  laws,  tried  as  much  as 
possible  to  avoid  giving  correct  information  ; 
many  people  were  represented  as  dead,  others 
put  down  far  above  or  below  their  actual 
ages.  Every  seven  or  eight  years  this  census  is 
taken  and  each  time  more  strictly  enforced, 
but  the  absence  of  birth-registration  greatly 
facilitates  the  frustration  of  the  Govern- 
ment's desire  for  exact  statements.  The 
number  of  children  in  a  Turkish  family,  not- 
withstanding the  system  of  polygamy,  is 
never  great,  ranging  between  two  and  eight. 
If  the  first  children  happen  to  be  females,  the 
mother  is  still  ambitious  of  possessing  a  male 
child,  but  should  the  latter  come  first  she  is 
satisfied,  and  resorts  to  every  means  in  her 
power  to  prevent  further  additions  to  her 
family.  A  Turkish  mother  may  practically, 
with  impunity,  destroy  her  offspring  if  she 
chooses  at  any  stage  of  her  pregnancy  ;  and 
this  cruel  and  immoral  custom  is  resorted  to 
by  all  classes  of  society,  often  resulting  in 
dangerous  accidents,  occasioning  injuries 
felt  through  life,  and  sometimes  having  fatal 
results.  Strong  opiates  are  also  resorted  to 
for  the  same  purpose,  as  well  as  a  number  of 
extraordinary  means  passing  description. 
Many  dangerous  medicines  used  with  this 
object,  which  in  Europe  are  disposed  of  with 
difficulty,  or  of  which  the  sale  is  even  pro- 
hibited, are  every  year  shipped  for  Turkey, 
where  they  find  numerous  purchasers.  Dur- 
ing a  short  visit  I  made  to  Philippopolis  I 
stayed  at  the  house  of  the  Mudir  of  Haskia  ; 
his  newly-married  wife  was  very  young,  ex- 
tremely pretty,  and  delicate.  She  was  very 
much  depressed  at  the  idea  of  becoming  a 
mother,  before  becoming  rather  plumper  ; 
for  embonpoint  is  a  great  object  of  ambition 
with  Turkish  ladies.  When,  on  my  return 
to  Haskia,  I  stopped  at  the  same  house,  the 
delicate  beauty  was  dead,  and  her  place  al- 
ready filled  by  a  robust  young  rustic,  who 
bustled  about,  trying  with  awkward  efforts 
to  accustom  her  untrained  nature  to  the 
duties  of  her  new  position.  On  making 
inquiries  about  the  previous  wife  in  whom  I 
was  interested,  I  was  quietly  told  that  she 
had  succumbed  about  two  months  previously 
to  some  violent  measures  she  had  used  in 
order  to  procure  abortion,  and  had  been 
found  dead  in  her  bath.  Her  untimely  end 
was  due  to  the  instrumentality  of  a  Jewish 
quack,  who,  though  having  evidently  caused 
the  death  of  the  poor  woman,  never  lost  any 
social  position  from  what  was  simply  con- 
sidered as  a  misadventure. 

I  have  heard  from  a  trustworthy  Turkish 
source  that  in  Constantinople  alone  not  less 
that  4000  instances  of  abortion  are  procured 
annually  with  the  assistance  of  a  class  of  wo- 
men known  as  Kaulii  Ebe,  who  earn  consid- 
eral  lie  sums  by  their  nefarious  practice.  Th  is 
statement  has  been  confirmed  by  the  "  Dje 
ride  i  Havadis"  newspaper,  and  in  an  article 
which  appeared  in  the  Bassuret  newspaper 
on  the  serious  decrease  of  the  population. 
The  writer  (a  Turk)  says  this  decrease  is  ow- 
ing, first,  to  the  conscription  ;  secondly,  to 
polygamy  ;  thirdly,  to  the  prevalence  of  arti- 
ficial abortion  ;  fourthly,  to  the  absence  of  all 
sanitary  precautions  in  domestic  economy. 

The  births  among  other  Eastern  nations 
have  all  their  peculiar  ceremonies ;  some 
originating  in  national  traditions,  others  be- 
ing copied  from  the  customs  of  the  dominant 
nation.     Jewesses  pride   themselves  greatly 


when  nature  has  made  them  prolific  moth- 
ers ;  even  the  poorest  rejoice  over  successive 
births,  particularly  when  the  children  are 
males.  On  all  such  occasions,  friends  and 
relatives  gather  round  the  expectant  mother, 
giving  much  of  their  time  to  her  company, 
and  making  every  effort  to  amuse  her  and 
make  her  less  sensitive  to  the  pains  and  anx- 
ieties of  maternity.  In  some  towns,  Adriano- 
ple  for  instance,  regular  riunivns  take  place 
round  the  sick-couch  (including  visitors  of 
both  sexes),  enlivened  by  music  ami  dancing. 
If  the  child  be  a  girl,  its  name  is  given  to  it  , 
if  a  boy,  it  is  circumcised.  A  Rabbi  is  called 
in,  and.  a  godfather  and  godmother  chosen. 
The  latter  carries  the  baby  to  the  door  of  the 
room  and  delivers  it  to  the  former,  who  holds 
the  infant  during  the  initiation  ;  it  is  then 
returned  to  the  mother,  and  a  feast  is  given 
on  the  occasion. 

The  Armenians  have  conformed  more  to 
the  Turkish  customs  than  any  other  race  in 
the  country.  An  Armenian  confinement  is 
assisted  by  a  midwife,  herself  an  Armenian, 
and  as  ignorant  as  her  Turkish  colleague  ; 
only  in  difficult  cases  is  a  doctor  resorted  to. 
The  ceremonies  at  an  Armenian  birth  are 
scarcely  less  superstitious  than  the  Turkish 
rites.  They  are  of  a  more  vague  and  indefi- 
nite character.  If  possible,  a  mother  and 
child  should  not  be  left  alone  the  first  few 
days  ;  but  the  broom  is  replaced  by  the  ven- 
erated image  of  the  Holy  Virgin  or  some 
saint,  put  on  guard  over  the  bed.  Garlic  is 
not  resorted  to  as  a  safeguard  against  the  evil 
eye.  but  holy  water  is  nightly  sprinkled  over 
child  and  mother,  who  are  also  fumigated 
with  the  holy  olive-branch.  The  company 
received  on  these  occasions  is  quiet,  and  only 
part  of  the  Turkish  show  and  pageantry  is 
displayed  in  the  adornment  of  the  bed.  The 
child  has  the  same  Bologna  sausage  appear- 
ance, modified  by  a  European  baby's  cap. 
A  neighbor  of  mine  once  brought  her  child 
to  me  in  great  distress,  saying  it  had  not, 
ceased  crying  for  three  days  and  nights. 
without  her  being  able  to  guess  the  reason 
I  made  her  at  once  unbandage  the  baby,  and 
soon  discovered  the  cause.  A  long  hair  had 
in  some  inexplicable  manner  wound  itself 
round  the  child's  thumb,  which  was  swollen 
to  a  disproportionate  size  through  the  stop- 
page of  the  circulation,  and  was  nearly  sev- 
ered from  the  little  baud. 

About  the  ninth  day  the  bath  ceremony 
takes  place ;  but  instead  of  the  mother's 
body  providing  food  for  her  guests  by  the 
honeyed  plaster  of  the  Turkish  woman,  all  sit 
down  to  a  substantial  luncheon  in  which  the 
Taldan  dohna  and  the  lakana  turshou  (Sauer- 
kraut) play  a  prominent  part,  and  which  is 
brought  into  the  bath  on  this  occasion. 

As  the  christening  takes  place  within  eight 
days,  it  cannot  on  that  account  be  witnessed 
by  the  mother,  who  is  unable  to  attend  the 
church  services  before  the  fortieth  day,  when 
she  goes  to  receive  the  benediction  of  purifi- 
cation. Part  of  the  water  used  for  the  chris- 
tening is  presumably  brought  from  the  river 
Jordan,  and  the  child  is  also  rubbed  with  holy 
oil.  The  service  concluded,  the  party  walk 
home  in  procession,  headed  by  the  midwife 
carrying  the  baby.  Refreshments  are  offered 
to  the  company,  who  soon  afterwards  retire. 
A  gift  of  a  gold  cross  or  a  fine  gold  coin  is 
made  to  the  child  by  the  sponsors. 

No  system  of  diet  is  followed  in  the  rear- 
ing of  Armenian  children,  nor  are  their  bod- 
ies refreshed  by  a  daily  bath.  Few  people  in 
the  East  bathe  their  children,  like  Europeans, 
for  a  general  idea  prevails  that  it  is  an  injuri- 
ous custom  and  a  fertile  cause  of  sickness. 
Kept  neither  clean  nor  neat,  they  are  allowed 
to  struggle  through  infancy  in  a  very  irregu- 
lar manner.  Yet  in  spite  of  this  they  are 
strong  and  healthy. 

The  customs  among  the  higher  classes  of 
Greeks  and  Bulgarians  are  very  much  alike. 
The  latter,  though  now  more  backward,  were 
till  lately  pretty  faithful  copies  of  the  for- 
mer.   Their  usages  differ  according  to  the 


40 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


district,  and  depend  upon  the  degree  of  prog- 
ress civilization  has  made  among  the  peo- 
ple. At  Constantinople,  for  instance,  every- 
thing takes  place  just  as  in  Europe  ;  but  in 
district  towns,  such  as  Adrianople,  Salonika, 
Vodena,  Serres,  many  of  the  superstitions  of 
the  ancient  Greeks  may  still  be  found  in  con- 
nection with  the  birth  of  a  child.  At  Serres, 
for  example,  the  event  is  awaited  in  silence 
by  the  midwife  and  a  few  elderly  relatives  ; 
when  the  little  stranger  arrives,  the  good 
news  is  taken  to  the  anxious  father,  and  then 
circulated  through  the  family,  who  soon  col- 
lect round  the  maternal  couch  and  offer  their 
hearty  felicitations,  saying,  "  Nii  KoXvxpovi)- 
aij."  The  infant  in  its  turn  receives  the  same 
good  wishes,  and  after  being  bathed  in  salt 
and  water  is  wrapped  up  (but  not  mummified) 
and  laid  by  the  side  of  the  mother,  who  can 
press  its  little  hand  and  watch  its  tiny  feet 
moving  about  under  their  coverings.  The 
couch  is  kept  for  three  days,  when  the  ac- 
couchee  is  made  to  rise  from  it,  walking  in  a 
stream  of  water  poured  by  the  mamme  (ac- 
coucheuse) from  a  bottle  along  her  path. 
This  custom  must  be  connected  with  the 
conception  of  water  as  the  emblem  of  purity, 
and  must  be  intended  to  remind  the  mother 
that  her  strength  must  ever  rest  upon  her 
chastity.  On  this  night  a  woof  and  some 
gold  and  silver  coins  are  placed  under  the 
pillow,  as  a  hint  to  the  Moerae,  or  fates,  who 
are  supposed  to  visit  the  slumbering  infant, 
that  they  may  include  riches  and  industry  in 
the  benefits  they  bestow  upon  it. 

The  christening,  as  a  rule,  takes  place 
■within  eight  days  after  the  birth.  The 
KawrrMroi  and  the  Koumbdra  (also  called 
Nona  and  Nona)  stand  as  godfather  and  god- 
mother to  the  child,  who  is  carried  to  the 
church  by  the  mamme  followed  by  the  spon- 
sors, the  relatives,  and  friends  invited  to  the 
ceremony.  The  cost  of  the  baptismal  robe, 
the  bonbons,  liqueurs,  and  all  other  expenses 
connected  with  the  rite  are  defrayed  by  the 
Nono.  The  lowest  estimate  of  the  cost  is  21. 
10s. ,  and,  though  a  great  outlay  for  a  poor 
family,  they  are  never  known  to  be  omitted. 

The  child,  held  by  the  godfather,  is  met 
at  the  church  door  by  the  officiating  priests, 
who  read  over  it  part  of  the  service,  the 
Nono  responding  to  the  questions. 

The  priest  then  holds  the  child  in  an  erect 
attitude,  and  standing  on  the  steps  of  the 
church  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  it. 
It  is  then  taken  by  the  godfather  and  placed 
for  a  moment  before  the  shrine  of  Christ  or 
the  Virgin,  according  to  its  sex,  while  the 
priests,  proceeding  to  the  font,  pour  in  the 
hot  water  and  some  of  the  oil  brought  by  the 
sponsor  and  consecrated  in  the  church.  The 
infant  is  taken  from  his  hands,  and  in  its  orig- 
inal nakedness  plunged  three  times  into  the 
font.  Three  pieces  of  hair  are  cut  from  its 
head  in  the  form  of  crosses  and  thrown  into 
the  water,  which  is  poured  into  a  consecrated 
well  in  the  church.  The  cutting  off  of  these 
locks  of  hair  probably  had  its  origin  in  a 
custom  observed  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  who 
dedicated  their  hair  to  the  water  deities  ;  now 
it  signifies  the  dedication  of  the  infants  to 
Christ  at  their  baptism. 

The  sign  of  the  cross  is  made  on  the  head 
and  parts  of  the  body  with  holy  oil,  signify- 
ing confirmation.  The  child  is  then  deliver- 
ed into  the  hands  of  the  godmother,  who  car- 
ries it  three  times  round  the  font  while  pray- 
ers are  being  read  ;  it  is  then  taken  to  the 
holy  gates,  where  the  communion  is  adminis- 
tered in  both  hands  with  a  spoon,  so  that  the 
three  sacraments,  baptism,  confirmation,  and 
the  Eucharist,  are  all  given  to  the  child  while 
an  unconscious  infant. 

The  service  concluded,  the  party  return  to 
the  house  to  partake  of  bonbons,  liqueurs, 
etc. ,  and  to  be  decorated  with  small  crosses 
attached  to  favors  given  as  mementoes  of  the 
event. 

The  members  of  the  orthodox  church  are 
perhaps  the  only  people  who  do  not  content 
themselves  with  making  solemn  promises  for 


the  child,  but  conscientiously  fulfil  them  to 
the  best  of  their  ability.  The  Nono  and 
Nona,  in  consequence  of  the  responsibilities 
they  assume,  become  so  closely  connected 
with  their  godchildren  that  marriage  be- 
tween these  and  their  own  children  is  not 
permitted. 

While  the  Bulgarian  lady  in  town  is  set- 
ting aside  many  of  the  usages  and  supersti- 
tions attached  to  the  rearing  of  children,  a 
word  or  two  about  her  hardy  sister  in  the  ru- 
ral districts  may  not  be  out  of  place  here. 
While  staying  at  Bulgarian  villages  it  was 
very  pleasant  to  me  to  watch  the  simplicity, 
activity,  and  wonderful  physical  strength  of 
the  peasantry. 

The  Bulgarian  women  are  rather  small  but 
thickly  set,  their  chests  well  developed,  their 
limbs  powerful  through  constant  exercise, 
and  their  whole  frames  admirably  adapted 
for  bearing  children.  They  do  not,  as  a 
rule,  bear  many,  as  they  seldom  marry  young, 
and  their  life  of  constant  toil  and  hardship 
makes  them  sterile  before  the  natural  time. 

The  delicate  touch  of  refinement  has  not 
yet  reached  these  strong  natures,  whose  sys- 
tems, kept  free  from  special  care  and  anxiety, 
remain  proof  against  shocks  that  would  kill 
many  an  apparently  strong  woman  whose 
physical  training  had  not  been  the  same. 
Providence  is  the  sole  guardian  that  watches 
over  these  peasants,  and  nature  the  only 
fountain  from  which  they  derive  their  sup- 
port. I  remember  the  case  of  a  Bulgarian 
bulkii.  the  wife  of  a  tenant  attached  to  the 
farm  at  which  I  was  staying.  She  was  a  fine 
young  woman,  bright-looking,  clean,  and 
well  dressed  ;  her  bare  feet  were  small  and 
well  shaped,  her  mien  erect  and  free,  al- 
though she  appeared  far  advanced  in  preg- 
nancy. Daily  I  used  to  watch  her  walk  out 
of  the  yard,  with  her  two  large  copper  pails 
slung  on  a  rod  gracefully  poised  on  her 
shoulder,  and  go  to  the  fountain  to  fetch 
water.  One  evening  I  saw  her  return  later 
than  usual  ;  her  step  seemed  lighter  although 
her  pails  were  full,  and  her  pretty  apron,  the 
ends  of  which  were  tucked  into  her  sash, 
contained  something  I  could  not  well  discern 
at  a  distance,  but  which,  as  she  approached, 
I  was  surprised  to  see  was  a  new-born  baby, 
with  its  tiny  feet  peeping  out  on  one  side. 
Passing  the  door  of  a  neighbor,  she  smilingly 
beckoned  to  her,  pointing  to  the  infant  in 
her  apron,  and  asked  for  her  assistance.  I 
followed  shortly  after,  curious  to  see  how 
fared  this  prodigy  of  nature.  I  found  her 
quietly  reposing  on  the  bed  that  had  been 
hastily  prepared  for  her  on  the  floor,  while 
her  companion  was  washing  the  infant.  The 
latter,  after  its  bath,  was  thoroughly  salted, 
wrapped  in  its  clothes,  and  laid  by  the  side 
of  the  mother  ;  but  the  miseries  of  the  little 
being  did  not  end  there  ;  a  pan  was  pro- 
duced, some  oil  poured  into  it  and  set  to 
boil  ;  in  this  three  eggs  were  broken  and 
cooked  into  an  omelette.  This  was  placed  on 
a  cloth  with  a  quantity  of  black  pepper  sift- 
ed over  it,  and  applied  to  the  head  of  the  un- 
fortunate infant,  who  began  at  once  to 
scream  in  great  distress.  I  naturally  inquir- 
ed the  benefit  to  be  derived  in  salting  and 
poulticing  the  new-born  child,  and  was  told 
that  if  not  salted,  its  feet  or  some  other  part 
of  its  body  would  exhale  offensive  odors,  and 
that  the  application  of  the  poultice  was  to 
solidify  the  skull  and  render  it  proof  against 
sunstroke.  The  next  morning  the  mother 
was  up  going  through  the  usual  routine  of 
her  household  work.  She  assured  me  that 
in  a  few  days  she  would  resume  her  field  la- 
bor, carrying  her  suckling  with  her,  which, 
she  added,  "  now  fanned  by  the  evening 
breeze,  now  scorched  by  the  burning  rays  of 
the  sun,  would  all  the  same  brave  the  adverse 
elements  :  Ako  ema  strabi  jive  (if  it  has  life 
to  live)." 

Struck  by  the  fatalistic  meaning  of  her 
words,  I  asked  how  could  a  weak  or  delicate 
child  stand  such  a  trial.  "  Stand  it  !"  she 
repeated, ' '  who  said  it  did  ?    With  us  a  deli- 


cate child  does  not  outlive  the  year."  The 
Archangel  would  silently  come  upon  it  one 
day  as  it  slumbered  under  the  shade  of  some 
spreading  tree  and  snatch  away  its  innocent 
soul  while  the  mother  was  toiling  in  the  field 
to  gain  her  daily  bread  and  put  by  some- 
thing for  those  left  behind.  ' '  Happy  they  ! ' ' 
she  went  on,  while  hot  tears  ran  down  her 
cheeks.  ' '  Let  the  little  souls  depart  in 
peace,  and  await  in  heaven  the  souls  of  their 
unfortunate  mothers  whom  God  and  man 
seem  to  have  abandoned  to  cruel  adversity, 
heart-rending  sorrows,  distress,  and  despair." 
I  was  deeply  affected  by  this  genuine  out- 
burst of  grief,  and  did  all  in  my  power  to 
console  her. 

Du  sublime  au  ridicule  il  n'y  a  qu'unpas  ! 
Next  morning,  on  a  tour  I  made  round  the 
village,  I  stepped  into  a  cottage  that  teemed 
with  little  children,  and  here  1  unexpectedly 
met  with  my  second  heroine,  who,  although 
a  Spartan  in  body,  was  not  specially  vigorous 
as  to  mind.  My  other  Bulgarian  bulka  was 
a  fat,  jolly  little  woman  verging  towards 
middle  age,  the  mother  of  ten  children,  most 
of  whom  had  come  by  twins  in  rapid  succes- 
sion. The  two  youngest,  born  the  day  be- 
fore, were  jus-  now  reposing  in  kneading- 
troughs,  violently  rocked  by  their  elder  sis- 
ters, while  the  mother,  surrounded  by  this 
happy  family,  was  occupied  in  kneading 
bread. 

As  she  saw  me  come  in  she  advanced  and 
welcomed  me  with  the  usual  salutation.  I 
questioned  her  about  her  children,  and  how 
she  managed  to  bring  up  and  feed  such  a 
number,  often  having  the  care  of  two  infants 
at  a  time.  "  Oh,"  said  she,  "  it  is  no  trou- 
ble. I  and  my  cow,  being  two,  manage  be- 
tween us  to  set  the  little  mites  on  their  legs. 
Yesterday,  two  hours  after  the  arrival  of  my 
two  children,"  pointing  to  the  troughs,  "  my 
cow  poked  her  head  in  at  the  door  lowing 
for  me  and  for  her  calf.  What  could  I  do"? 
I  got  up  and  milked  her  as  usual,  and  sent 
her  to  her  young  one,  while  I  fed  my  numer- 
ous family  with  her  milk.  We  peasants  who 
till  the  ground  have  not  much  time  to  think 
about  ourselves  or  to  give  to  our  children, 
who  cannot  begin  too  early  to  accustom 
themselves  to  the  hardships  that  await  them 
through  life.  When  the  troubles  of  mater- 
nity are  greater  than  usual,  the  oldest  shep- 
herd of  the  village  is  called  in  and  performs 
for  us  the  services  of  a  doctor,  and  when  any 
one  among  us  is  ailing,  frictions  and  aromat- 
ic potions  will  cure  him." 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

FOOD. 

A  Turkish  Kitchen— Turkish  Meals — Dinner— Cof- 
fee— European  Innovations — Turkish  Cookery — The 
Sultan's  Kitchen— Turkish  Gourmets—Economy  of 
Food— Hospitality— Greek  and  Bulgarian  Food— Lent 
Dishes — European  Manners  among  the  Greeks — Ar- 
menian Gluttony— Marriages  with  Cooks — Jewish 
Food— A  Bulgarian  Menage— Experiences  of  a  Dinner 
in  the  Opium  Country— Refreshment  to  Visitors — 
Tat'ou— Sherbet— Coffee— Wine  and  Spirits— Recipe 
for  Making  Coffee  a  la  Turca— Milk—Cheese— Sour 
Cream— A  Diplomatic  Coup— Cook-shops. 

A  Turkish  kitchen  is  a  spacious  building, 
roughly  constructed,  and,  in  the  dwellings  of 
the  rich,  generally  detached  from  the  rest  of 
the  house.  A  deep  arched  opening  made  in 
the  wall  facing  the  door  forms  the  foundation 
of  the  cooking-range,  which  is  raised  about 
three  feet  from  the  ground  and  consists  of  a 
row  of  Ogaks — holes  with  grates  in  them 
over  a  sort  of  ash-bed,  where  the  Kebab,  or 
roast,  is  cooked  and  the  smaller  dishes  kept 
warm.  A  sink  of  a  primitive  description  oc- 
cupies one  side  of  the  kitchen,  and  a  plate- 
rack,  containing  the  cooking  utensils,  an- 
other. The  side  facing  the  house  is  of  open 
lattice- work  ;  the  floor  is  invariably  of  stone. 
Great  attention  is  paid  to  keeping  the  culi- 
nary utensils,  which  are  all  of  copper,  clean 
and  bright  ;  but  order  and  neatness  in  other 
respects  are  entirely  disregarded,  and  there 
are  few  of  those  arrangements  that  render 
an  English  kitchen  such  a  pleasant  and  in- 


w* 


JPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


teresting  apartment.  A  tin  lamp,  such  as 
.las  been  used  from  time  immemorial,  is 
hung  at  one  side  of  the  chimney,  and  gives 
but  a  very  dim  light. 

The  kitchen  :s  generally  included  in  the 
department  of  the  Haremllk,  and  is  presided 
over  by  one  or  two  negress es,  who  make  very 
good  cooks.  The  fresh  provisions  are  pur- 
chased daily  by  the  Ayvas,  or  purveyor,  gen- 
erally an  Armenian,  and  passed  in  through 
the  Dulap,  a  revolving  cupboard  in  the  wall 
between  the  Haremllk  and  Selamlik,  used 
for  most  communications  between  the  two 
departments  ;  a  loud  knock  on  either  side 
being  answered  b}'  a  servant  who  comes  to 
hear  what  is  wanted. 

The  Turks  have  two  meals  a  day  ;  one, 
kahvalto,  between  ten  and  eleven,  and  the 
other,  yemek,  at  sunset.  One  or  two  cups  of 
black  coffee  is  all  they  take  in  the  early 
morning.  The  dinner  is  brought  into  the 
dining-room  of  the  Haremllk  on  a  large  cir- 
cular copper  tray,  and  deposited  on  the  floor  ; 
a  similar  tray  is  placed  on  a  stool  and  covered 
with  a  common  calico  cloth.  On  this  are 
placed  a  number  of  saucers  containing  lion 
d'muvres,  a  salt-cellar,  a  pepper-box,  and  a 
portion  of  bread  for  each  person  A  leather 
pad  occupies  the  centre,  on  which  the  dishes 
are  placed  in  succession,  and  the  company  sit 
cross-legged  round  the  tray.  Dinner  is  an- 
nounced by  a  slave — the  hostess  leads  the 
way  into  the  Yemek  oda,  or  dining-room. 
Servants  approach  and  pour  water  over  the 
hands  from  links,  or  curious  ewers,  holding 
Leyeiis,  or  basins,  to  catch  it  as  it  falls  ; 
others  offer  towels  as  napkins  to  use  during 
the  meal.  As  many  as  eight  or  ten  persons 
can  sit  round  these  trays.  The  hostess,  if 
she  be  of  higher  rank  than  her  guests,  is  the 
first  to  dip  her  spoon  into  the  soup-tureen, 
politely  inviting  them  to  do  the  same  ;  if  j 
her  rank  be  inferior  to  that  of  any  one  of  her 
guests,  they  are  invited  to  take  precedence. 

Turkish  soups  resemble  very  thick  broth, 
and  are  altogether  unlike  those  found  on  Eu- 
ropean tables.  After  the  soup  has  been  spar- 
ingly partaken  of,  it  is  removed  on  a  sign 
from  the  hostess  and  replaced  by  the  other 
dishes  in  succession.  The  sweets  are  eaten 
between  the  courses.  The  left  hand  is  used 
to  convey  the  food  to  the  mouth,  the  thumb 
and  two  first  fingers  doing  the  duty  of  forks. 
It  is  considered  a  mark  of  great  attention 
on  the  part  of  the  hostess  to  pick  up  the 
daintiest  bit  of  food,  and  place  it  in  the 
mouth  of  any  of  her  guests.  Pttaf,  the  na- 
tional dish,  composed  principally  of  rice,  and 
Hocliaf  (stewed  fruits,  iced),  are  the  last 
dishes  placed  on  the  table.  Pure  water  is 
the  only  drink  allowed  in  the  JIaremlik,  and 
is  handed,  when  required,  in  tumblers  held 
by  slaves  standing  behind  the  company. 
Before  leaving  the  Yemek  oda,  the  Ibriks  and 
Leyens  are  again  resorted  to.  On  re-entering 
the  drawing-room,  coffee  and  cigarettes  are 
immediately  handed  round.  The  way  in 
which  coffee  is  served  is  one  of  the  prettiest 
of  the  old  Turkish  customs.  All  the  slaves 
and  attendants  enter  the  rooms  and  stand  at 
the  lower  end  with  folded  arms.  The  coffee- 
pot and  cup-stands  of  gold  or  silver  are  placed 
on  a  tray  held  by  the  Kalfa,  or  head-ser- 
vant ;  attached  to  the  tray  is  an  oval  crim- 
son cloth,  richly  worked  with  gold.  The 
coffee  is  poured  out,  and  the  cups  offered 
separately  by  the  other  servants,  who  again 
retire  to  the  lower  end  of  the  room  till  they 
are  required  to  take  the  empty  cups. 

On  my  last  visit  to  the  capital  I  found 
many  changes,  and  noticed  that  many  Euro- 
pean customs  had  been  adopted  in  some  of 
the  principal  houses,  tables  and  chairs  hav- 
ing replaced  the  dinner-trays  in  most  of 
them,  and  even  a  complete  European  dinner- 
service  might  in  some  houses  be  found  in 
use.  I  happened  to  visit  a  Pasha's  harem, 
and  was  invited  to  stay  to  luncheon  ;  on  be- 
ing ushered  into  the  dining  room,  I  was 
agreeably  surprised  to  find  myself  in  a  spa- 
cious apartment,  furnished  in  the  European 


style,  ana  rounded  on  three  sides  by  a 
lovely  garden  where  the  rose,  the  jasmine, 
and  the  orange  blossomed  in  profusion, 
breathing  their  delicious  perfume  into  the 
room  through  the  open  windows.  Three  ta- 
bles, richly  laid,  stood  in  the  room  ;  a  large 
one,  occupying  the  centre,  and  two  smaller 
ones  in  corners.  The  centre  one  was  reserv- 
ed for  the  Hanoum  and  such  of  her  guests  as 
were  entitled  by  their  rank  to  be  admitted  to 
her  table,  the  second  for  her  daughter  and 
her  young  companions,  and  the  third  for 
guests  of  an  inferior  degree.  The  luncheon 
went  off  very  well,  although  one  or  two  of 
the  company  appeared  little  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  knives  and  forks,  which  they  held, 
indeed,  in  their  hands,  but,  forgetful  of  the 
fact,  conveyed  the  food  to  their  mouths  with 
their  fiugers,  and  consequently  made  a  few 
scratches  on  their  noses.  This  maladresse 
occasioning  some  merriment  to  the  others, 
these  offenders  against  European  customs 
laid  down  the  dangerous  implements  and 
took  to  their  own  method  of  eating,  a  very 
good  one  of  its  kind  and  demanding  much 
more  skill  than  the  European  manner.  There 
is  a  neatness  in  the  Turkish  way  of  manipu- 
lating the  food  that  can  only  be  acquired  by 
care  and  long  practice  ;  the  thumb  and  two 
fingers  alone  must  touch  the  meat,  the  rest 
of  the  hand  remaining  perfectly  clean  and 
free  from  contact  with  it. 

Another  incident  of  an  amusing  nature 
would  have  tended  to  increase  our  merriment 
had  not  Turkish  equanimity  imposed  upon 
us  the  necessity  of  ignoring  it.  Mustard,  an 
unusual  condiment  on  a  Turkish  table,  was 
handed  round,  perhaps  in  honor  of  my  pres- 
ence. An  old  lady,  not  knowing  what  it 
was,  took  a  spoonful,  and  before  any  one  had 
time  to  interfere,  had  swallowed  it.  Her 
face  became  crimson,  tears  ran  down  her 
cheeks,  she  sneezed  and  appeared  choking  ; 
but  at  last,  with  a  supreme  effort,  she  re- 
gained her  composure,  and  looked  as  pleasant 
as  circumstances  would  allow. 

The  use  of  knives  and  forks,  though  fast 
becoming  general  among  the  higher  classes  at 
Stamboul,  is  not  yet  much  introduced  into 
the  interior.  During  my  residence  in  one  of 
the  provincial  towns  of  European  Turkey, 
these  articles  were  occasionally  borrowed 
from  me  by  a  rich  bey  for  his  grand  enter- 
tainments. The  forks  I  lent  were  electro- 
plate ;  but  when  they  were  returned  I  found 
silver  ones  among  them,  and  discovered  that, 
some  of  mine  having  been  stolen  or  lost,  the 
bey  had  them  copied  by  native  workmen. 

The  most  refined  Turkish  cookery  is  not 
costly  ;  the  materials  consist  of  mutton,  fowl, 
fish,  flour,  rice,  milk,  honey,  sugar,  vegeta- 
bles, and  fruit.  All  the  dishes  are  cooked  in 
clarified  butter  in  a  simple  manner,  and  fat 
or  oil  is  seldom  used.  The  average  number 
of  dishes  sent  to  table  in  a  wealthy  house  is 
nine  at  each  meal.  The  meat  is  always  over- 
cooked and  badly  served,  except  the  lamb 
roasted  whole,  stuffed  with  rice  and  pista- 
chios, and  the  Kebab.  The  latter  consists  of 
small  pieces  of  meat  cooked  on  skewers,  and 
served  on  a  Peia,  a  species  of  batter  pudding. 
Another  favorite  dish  is  the  Imam  Baildi,  or 
"  The  Imam  fainted  ;"  it  is  composed  of  au- 
bergiues  and  onions  cooked  in  oil,  and  has 
the  following  rather  vapid  little  history  at- 
tached to  it.  An  Imam  stole  some  oil  from 
the  mosque  in  his  care,  the  whole  of  which 
his  ingenious  wife  used  in  cooking  a  dish  she 
had  just  invented.  This  was  being  partaken 
of  with  much  relish  by  the  Imam  till  he  was 
informed  that  all  the  oil  had  been  consumed 
in  its  preparation,  when  he  immediately 
fainted.  Some  of  these  dishes  are  excellent, 
and  are  relished  even  by  Europeans. 

Two  Sofras,  or  tables,  are  furnished  by  the 
cook  at  each  meal  ;  one  for  the  Haremlik  and 
the  other  for  the  Selamlik.  After  the  master 
and  mistress  have  left  the  tables  the  servants 
take  the  vacant  seats.  The  supply  is  unlim- 
ited, and  much  waste  and  extravagance  en- 
sue, owing  to  the  number  of  guests  of  high 


41 

and  low  degree  that  are  always  expected  to 
drop  in  to  dinner. 

During  Abdul -Medjid's  reign  I  visited  the 
imperial  kitchen,  an  immense  establishment, 
giving  employment  to  500  cooks  and  scul- 
lions. Among  some  curious  details  I  learnt 
respecting  this  department,  one  referring  to 
the  functions  of  the  head-cook  may  not  be 
uninteresting.  This  unfortunate  individual 
was  chained  to  the  stove  by  being  obliged  to 
provide  an  hourly  meal  for  the  Sultan,  whose 
repasts  depended  upon  his  caprice,  and  who 
required  that  food  should  be  ready  for  him 
at  any  moment. 

Abdul-Aziz  was  an  enormous  eater,  and  a 
great  gourmet  ;  he  was  often  known  to  emp- 
ty a  dish  of  six  eggs  cooked  in  butter,  with 
Padourmah,  a  kind  of  dried  meat,  in  a  few 
minutes. 

It  was  one  of  his  peculiarities  to  throw  his 
food  at  the  heads  of  his  ministers  when  dis- 
pleased with  them,  and  this  favorite  dish 
often  experienced  that  fate.  During  the  lat- 
ter part  of  his  reign  his  meals  were  prepared 
in  the  harem,  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  Valid^  Sultana,  who  enveloped  every 
dish  in  crape,  and  tied  and  sealed  it  with  her 
own  seal  before  sending  it  into  the  Selam- 
lik. 

Another    illustrious   man,    A K 

Pasha,  surpassed  his  august  sovereign  in 
gluttony  ;  while  in  Albania,  I  was  assured 
by  more  than  one  eye-witness  that  he  fre- 
quently consumed  the  whole  of  a  stuffed 
lamb  at  a  meal. 

Bread  forms  the  fundamental  part  of  a 
poor  man's  food  ;  with  it  he  eats  kattuk, 
which  comprises  cheese,  treacle,  halva,  fruit, 
onions,  garlic,  etc.,  etc.  Fruit  is  extremely 
cheap  and  good,  and  is  largely  consumed  by 
all  classes.  Poor  families  can  subsist  upon 
from  a  shilling  to  one  and  sixpence  a  day. 

In  the  Turkish  quarter,  where  the  rich  live 
side  by  side  with  the  poor,  the  latter  have 
often  the  opportunity  of  eating  a  good  din- 
ner ;  they  have  only  to  drop  in  at  the  rich 
man's  door,  and  hospitality  is  at  once  ex- 
tended to  them.  This  kind  of  charity,  how- 
ever, is  greatly  on  the  decrease,  owing,  no 
doubt,  to  the  financial  embarrassment  gener- 
ally felt  throughout  the  country. 

The  kitchen  department,  both  in  Greek 
and  Bulgarian  families,  is  superintended  by 
the  mistress  of  the  house,  who  orders  dinner, 
and  daily  or  weekly  regulates  the  expenses. 

The  food  of  the  middle  classes  of  the  Chris- 
tians differs  only  from  that  of  the  Turks  in 
the  addition  of  the  Lent  dishes.  During  this 
period  the  poorer  orders  consume  more  gar- 
lic, onions,  olives,  and  dried  fish. 

The  Greeks  appear  to  have  been  the  first 
of  the  natives  of  this  country  to  adopt  the 
custom  of  eating  with  knives  and  forks  and 
taking  their  meals  at  a  table.  Except  in 
wealthy  houses  in  the  capital,  their  table  ar- 
rangements are  very  deficient  and  inelegant ; 
till  very  recently  the  napkins  and  table-cloths 
were  either  home-woven  or  made  of  un- 
bleached calico.  The  knives  and  forks  were 
of  steel  and  iron,  clumsy  productions  from. 
Austria  and  Bohemia,  and  the  glass  and 
crockery  from  the  same  countries  were  of 
uncouth  forms,  sold  at  high  prices.  The 
competition  in  the  sale  of  these  articles  that 
France  and  England  have  of  late  years  estab- 
lished in  the  country  has  not  only  created  a 
marked  improvement  in  the  quality  of  these 
necessaries,  but  has  also  reduced  their  prices 
and  brought  them  within  the  reach  of  all. 
Most  families  are  possessed  of  a  certain 
amount  of  table  silver,  in  the  shape  of  forks, 
spoons,  etc.  ;  these  are,  however,  being  re- 
placed by  electro-plate,  now  abundantly  in- 
troduced. 

The  Jews  and  Armenians  have  many 
strange  and  interesting  customs  in  the  matter 
of  eating.  The  Armenians  are  renowned  for 
their  gluttony  and  extreme  fondness  for  good 
things.  Until  lately  they  took  their  meals  in 
a  manner  very  similar  to  the  Turks.  They 
would  use  their  knives  and  forks  to  a  certain 


43 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TUERiv 


extent,  but  their  fingers  much  more.  The 
lower  orders  still  sit  on  the  floor  round  a  ta- 
ble about  eight  inches  high.  Their  dishes, 
"with  the  addition  of  a  few  national  ones,  re- 
semble those  of  the  Turks,  and  they  are  fa- 
mous for  the  manufacture  of  very  rich  sweets 
of  various  kinds.  The  kitchen,  being  the 
most  important  department  in  an  Armenian 
house,  demands  the  daily  supervision  of 
both  master  and  mistress  ;  the  former  lias  the 
supreme  voice  in  selecting  the  dishes,  and  the 
latter  often  takes  an  active  part  in  their  prep- 
aration. I  knew  a  wealthy  Armenian  who 
married  the  daughter  of  his  cook  in  order  to 
secure  the  permanent  services  of  the  mother. 
He  assured  mo  of  the  perfect  bliss  the  alli- 
ance had  brought  him  in  the  possession  of  a 
pretty  wife  and  the  daily  enjoyment  of  the 
dolmas  made  by  his  mother-in-law.  Some 
time  ago  a  well-known  and  wealthy  English- 
man fell  in  love  with  and  married  a  worth- 
less Armenian  girl,  having  seen  her,  from  a 
neighboring  house,  preparing  the  same  dish. 
He  had,  however,  reason  to  repent  thus  mak- 
ing his  appetite  his  only  consideration  ;  life 
became  no  longer  endurable  with  such  an  un- 
sympathetic helpmate,  and  ho  absconded  and 
returned  to  his  native  land,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
a  wiser  man. 

The  Jews  in  the  East  observe,  with  the 
greatest  strictness,  all  the  outward  forms  of 
their  religion,  and  particularly  those  relating 
to  food,  whose  preparation  is  regulated  by  a 
great  many  strange  and  complicated  laws. 

All  flesh  is  Tourfa,  or  unclean,  unless  the 
animal  has  been  killed  in  the  presence  of  a 
Rabbi,  who  hands  to  the  butcher  a  special 
knife  (after  having  examined  the  animal  in 
order  to  ascertain  if  it  be  clean  or  unclean) 
"with  which  lie  must  sever  the  windpipe  at  a 
single  stroke  ;  should  he  fail  to  do  so  the  an- 
imal is  considered  unclean  and  cannot  be 
eaten.  Even  in  case  of  success,  parts  of  the 
flesh  only  are  acceptable  to  them,  and  all  the 
fat  adhering  to  the  muscles  must  be  removed 
before  it  is  cooked.  Cheese,  wine,  and  sun- 
dry other  provisions  are  not  considered 
clean  unless  made  by  Israelites  ;  butter  is  sel- 
dom bought,  and  only  when  sold  in  skins 
with  the  hairy  side  turned  inwards.  Six 
hours  must  elapse  before  a  Hebrew  can  touch 
cheese,  milk,  or  butter  after  having  partaken 
of  meat,  though  he  is  at  liberty  to  eat  meat 
directly  after  these.  The  dishes  are  cooked 
in  sesame  oil,  an  ingredient  that  renders 
them  quite  distasteful  to  any  but  Jewish  pal- 
ates ;  this  oil  is  also  used  for  making  pastry, 
which  is  very  heavy  and  indigestible.  In 
fact,  their  cookery  is  so  peculiar  and  unpal- 
atable that  when  a  Jew  entertains  Gentiles  he 
generally  resorts  to  foreign  dishes.  When 
a  Turk  or  Christian  wishes  to  extend  his 
hospitality  to  an  Israelite,  he  is  obliged  to 
have  most  of  the  food  prepared  by  a  cook  of 
the  Hebrew  faith. 

A  duty  on  all  that  is  Tourfa  is  imposed  by 
the  Rabbi  of  each  community  ;  this  tax. 
amounting  to  a  considerable  sum,  is  set  apart 
for  charitable  purposes,  and  for  the  support 
of  schools  for  the  poor.  It  is,  on  the  whole, 
a  strange  kind  of  charity,  for  after  all  it  is 
only  taking  the  money  out  of  the  pockets  of 
the  poor  in  one  form  to  give  it  back  to  them 
in  another,  and  the  tax  falls  heavily  on  the 
Jewish  communities,  since  they  are  princi- 
pally composed  of  poor  people.  Several  at- 
tempts have  been  made  by  them,  especially 
in  Salonika,  to  have  it  removed,  but  hitherto 
their  efforts  have  been  fruitless. 

The  hospitality  of  the  Jews  is,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  limited  to  members  of  their  own 
race,  and  even  then  not  very  largely  prac- 
tised. The  customs  of  the  Israelites  who 
have  received  a  European  education  differ 
very  little  from  those  of  the  Pranks. 

During  the  numerous  journeys  I  have  had 
occasion  to  make  in  Turkey  I  have  always 
found  genuine  and  hearty  hospitality  offered 
to  me  both  by  Turks  and  Christians.  I 
generally  accepted  that  of  the  latter,  as  it 
is  more  in  unison  with  our  own   customs 


and  habits.  Every  effort  was  made  on  the 
part  of  m)4  entertainers  to  please  me  and  an- 
ticipate my  wants,  and  I  have  often  been 
both  delighted  and  surprised  to  find  in  the 
heart  of  barbarous  little  towns  such  comforts 
as  a  bedstead,  basin,  and  table  service,  be- 
sides other  articles,  the  use  of  which  did  not 
always  appear  quite  clear  to  their  possessors. 
In  one  Bulgarian  house,  for  instance,  I  was 
offered  wine  in  a  feeding-bottle,  which  was 
handed  in  turn  to  the  rest  of  the  company. 
This  ludicrous  utensil  would  probably  have 
been  refused  if  fate  had  not  ordained  me  to 
be  the  first  baby  to  drink  from  it. 

As  a  contrast  to  this  incident  I  must  not 
forget  to  mention  one  of  a  far  superior  order. 
Passing  through  Sofia,  I  put  up  at  the  house 
of  a  wealthy  Bulgarian  Ohorbadji  ;  it  was  a 
large  building,  pretty  comfortably  furnished, 
and  very  neat  and  clean  in  appearance. 
Scarcely  had  I  rested  the  needful  time  after 
my  journey  and  partaken  of  Slatko,  or  pre- 
served fruit,  and  coffee,  when  my  hostess 
came  to  ask  if  I  were  not  desirous  of  taking 
a  bath  of  milk  and  rose-water.  This  propo- 
sal, denoting  such  a  high  standard  of  luxury, 
took  me  by  surprise,  and  my  desire  to  know 
its  origin  exceeded  the  wish  of  taking  imme- 
diate advantage  of  it.  The  question  had  U> 
be  solved,  and  I  thought  the  best  way  of  ex- 
plaining it  would  be  to  ask  my  hostess  if  this 
was  an  indispensable  part  of  the  toilet  of  the 
elite.  It  was  now  her  turn  to  look  surprised. 
"  Oh,  dear  no,  Goapoyer, "  she  exclaimed,  "  I 
made  the  offer  believing  it  to  be  one  of  your 
own  customs,  as  two  English  maidens  who 
lodged  in  my  house  some  time  ago  daily 
made  use  of  what  they  called  '  a  most  refresh- 
ing and  indispensable  luxury.'  Oh,  dear  no, 
Gospoyer, "  she  repeated,  "  we  are  too  thrifty 
a  people  to  think  of  wasting  a  quantity  of 
good  milk  that  could  be  converted  into  so 
much  cheese  and  butter  ;  but  you  Franks  are 
an  extravagant  race."  There  was  a  good 
deal  of  truth  in  what  she  said,  so,  making  a 
compromise  in  these  good  things,  I  willingly 
accepted  the  offer  of  the  rose-water,  which  is 
plentiful  in  the  town,  as  Sofia  is  not  far  from 
the  principal  rose-growing  districts. 

Autre  pays,  autre*  mtewrt.  During  a  flying 
visit  I  paid  to  Kara  Hissar,  in  Asia  Minor,  I 
took  up  my  quarters  at  the  house  of  an 
opium-growing  grandee.  The  dinner  offered 
to  me  was  good,  and  even  refined,  but  for  a 
slight  but  peculiar  flavor  to  which  I  was  un- 
accustomed ;  I  partook  of  it  heartily,  and 
afterwards,  in  order  to  please  my  hostess, 
accepted  a  cigarette.  Presently  I  felt  a 
strange  languor  creeping  over  me,  my  head 
whirled,  my  ears  began  to  tingle,  my  eye- 
sight dimmed,  and,  my  eyelids  heavily  clos- 
ing, I  soon  found  myself  in  the  fool's  para- 
dise of  opium-eaters.  All  sorts  of  sweet 
dreams  took  possession  of  my  imagination, 
crossed  by  the  most  ludicrous  thoughts  and 
desires.  I  imagined  that  trains  were  running 
down  my  arms  ;  next  my  travelling-boots, 
which  I  had  exchanged  for  slippers,  attracted 
my  attention,  and  although  not  very  large, 
they  took  to  my  deluded  vision  the  propor- 
tions of  a  grotto,  towards  which  I  made  a 
desperate  rush,  and  soon  felt  exhausted  with 
the  efforts  I  made  to  enter  it.  My  hostess 
took  the  form  of  a  rat,  from  whose  presence 
I  vainly  tried  to  escape  ;  I  went  towards  the 
open  window,  where  the  pure  night-air 
somewhat  refreshed  me,  and  the  twinkle  of 
the  myriad  bright  stars  raised  my  mind  to 
higher  thoughts,  and  sensations  of  an  inde- 
scribably delicious  character  took  possession 
of  me.  I  became  poetical,  and  surprised  my 
entertainers  by  my  declamations  which,  need- 
less to  say,  were  quite  unintelligible  to  them. 
I  finally  retired  to  rest,  and  sleep  overtaking 
me  consigned  all  to  oblivion  On  awaking 
next  morning,  I  felt  very  uncomfortable  ;  in 
fact,  I  was  ill.  The  meal  of  which  I  had 
partaken  had  been  cooked  in  poppy  -  oil, 
always  used  for  the  purpose  in  that  part  of 
the  country,  and  said  not  to  have  any  effect 
on  the  inhabitants,  who  are  accustomed  to  it 


'  from  childhood.  The  cigarette,  it  appeared, 
was  also  strongly  impregnated  with  the  same 
narcotic.  Let  my  experience  be  a  warning 
to  travellers  in  the  opium-growing  country. 

It  is  the  custom  throughout  Turkey  to 
offer  as  refreshment  the  Tutlou,  a  rich,  "kind 
of  preserve  made  from  fruits,  or  flowers  such 
as  roses,  lilies,  violets,  and  orange-blossoms. 
It  is  brought  in  soon  after  the  entrance  of  a 
visitor.  The  service  used  for  the  purpose 
may  be  of  the  most  costly  or  of  the  simplest 
description  ;  that  used  in  Turkish  harems  is 
always  of  some  precious  metal,  and  comprises 
a  salver,  two  preserve  basins,  a  double  spoon- 
basket,  and  a  number  of  goblets  and  spoons. 
The  edge  of  the  salver,  like  that  used  for  the 
coffee,  is  surrounded  by  a  gold-embroidered 
cloth  ;  the  slave  who  offers  it  does  so  on 
bended  knee. 

In  addition  to  the  Tatlou,  in  Turkish 
Konaks,  sherbet,  immediately  followed  by 
coffee,  is  offered  to  visitors  when  about  to 
leave  or  when  the  hostess  is  desirous  of  being 
relieved  of  their  company.  This  beverage  is 
made  from  the  juices  of  fruits,  cooled  with 
ice  ;  it  is  brought  in  on  a  tray  in  goblets.  A 
number  of  slaves  holding  richly  embroidered 
napkins  (on  one  end  of  which  the  goblet  is 
placed,  resting  on  the  palm  of  the  hand),  offer 
the  cup  to  the  guests,  who  wipe  their  lips  on 
the  other  end.  A  fermented  drink,  called 
Boza,  made  from  millet  seed,  is  very  largely 
consumed  by  the  lower  orders  ;  it  is  of  two 
kinds,  ttdhm  and  ekshi,  sweet  and  sour.  The 
latter,  possessing  intoxicating  properties,  is 
thick  and  muddy,  and  has  a  peculiar  earthv 
taste. 

Wine,  both  good  and  abundant,  is  con- 
sumed in  moderation  by  Jews,  Christians, 
and  Europeans,  and  of  late  years  "  La  Jeune 
Turquie"  has  manifested  a  decided  partiality 
for  it.  Turks  generally  dine  in  the  Selamlik, 
where  those  who  are  addicted  to  drink  (a  cus- 
tom prevalent  among  the  higher  orders)  begin 
some  hours  before  the  evening  meal  to  par- 
take freely  of  mezzeliks,  which  they  wash 
down  with  copious  draughts  of  raki.  It  is 
not  rare  to  find  Turks  who  have  never  tasted 
wine  or  spirits  in  their  lives  ;  but  one  sel- 
dom hears  of  a  Turk  once  addicted  to  their 
use  who  does  not  nightly  make  a  gross  abuse 
of  them,  a  habit  which  tends  greatly  to  in- 
crease the  vices  of  Turkish  society.  It  is  re- 
pugnant to  point  out  the  many  evils  that  re- 
sult from  such  orgies,  and  would  be  still 
more  so  to  illustrate  them  with  the  many  in- 
cidents that  have  come  under  my  notice. 

A  true  follower  of  the  Prophet  will  refrain 
from  wine,  as  prohibited  by  the  Koran.  The 
popular  belief  about  the  cause  of  the  prohi- 
bition is  that  Mohammed  when  on  his  way 
to  the  mosque  one  day  saw  a  band  of  his  fol- 
lowers, whose  happy  looks  and  gay  laughter 
made  a  pleasant  impression  upon  him.  He 
inquired  the  cause,  and  was  told  that  they 
were  lively  through  having  partaken  of  wine  ; 
he  approvingly  smiled  and  passed  on.  On 
his  return  the  scene  of  merriment  was 
changed  to  one  of  strife  and  bloodshed,  and 
he  was  informed  that  it  was  the  result  of 
drunkenness.  He  then  laid  a  curse  upon  the 
liquor  that  had  occasioned  the  disaster,  and 
upon  all  who  should  thenceforth  indulge  m. 
it. 

Coffee  in  Turkey  is  prepared  in  a  manner 
far  superior  to  that  of  any  other  country.  I 
will  give  the  recipe  for  its  preparation  for 
the  benefit  of  any  who  may  like  to  try  it. 
Water  is  placed  in  a  peculiarly-shaped  coffee- 
pot with  a  long  handle  and  a  beak-shaped 
spout.  This  is  pushed  sideways  against  a 
charcoal  fire,  and  when  the  water  has  arrived 
at  the  boiling  point  it  is  withdrawn,  a  small 
quantity  of  its  contents  poured  into  a  cup  and 
a  few  spoonfuls  of  finely-pulverized  coffee 
(according  to  the  number  of  cups  required)  is 
mixed  in  the  coffee-pot,  which  is  again  placed 
against  the  fire  and  the  contents  gently  shaken 
up  once  or  twice  while  a  thick  scum  rises  on 
the  surface.  Before  it  has  time  to  boil  up 
again  it  is  again  withdrawn  and  the  water 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


43 


that  had  been  poured  out  is  put  back.  It  is 
then  replaced  on  the  fire,  and  when  finally 
withdrawn  is  gently  knocked  once  or  twice, 
and  after  standing  a  few  moments  is  poured 
out  and  served. 

Sugar,  not  taken  by  the  Turks,  may  be 
added  before  or  after  boiling.  There  is  some 
little  art  required  in  the  making,  but  the 
quality  of  the  coffee  and  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  roasted  are  the  most  important  points. 
The  roasting  must  be  done  to  a  turn,  leav- 
ing the  coffee,  when  ground,  a  rich  golden 
brown. 

Milk,  very  plentiful  in  the  country,  is  made 
into  very  indifferent  cheese,  excellent  clotted 
cream,  called  Kaymak,  and  sour  cream, 
called  Yaourt  The  latter,  being  very  cheap 
and  good,  forms  a  great  part  of  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  people  ;  it  is  prepared  and  sold 
in  large  dairy-pans,  which  the  vendors  carry 
on  their  heads.  One  of  these  pans  served 
some  years  ago  in  a  practical  joke  that  the 

fay jeunesse  of  our  Embassy  played  in  the  ] 
'rince's  Islands  on  an  Armenian  tutor,  who  ( 
mentor-like  followed  three  young  ladies  in  ] 
their  walks,  evidently  to  the  dislike  of  the  t 
lively  ladies  and  the  scheming  young  diplo-  | 
matists,  who  had  made  up  their  minds  to  steal 
a  kiss  from  the  cheeks  of  the  young  beauties 
should  occasion  offer.     During  a  meeting  of 
the  parties,  a  Yaourtji  passing  by  at  the  mo- 
ment seemed  admirably  suited  for  their  pur- 
pose ;  one  of  the  gentlemen,  famous  for  his 
freaks,  seized  the  basin,  and  poured  its  con 
tents  over  the  head  of  the  unfortunate  tutor, 
who,  blinded  by  the  cream  running  down 
his  face,  was  unable  to  notice  what  passed. 

Ashji  Dukyan,  or  cook-shops,  are  numerous 
in  all  the  bazars  of  Eastern  towns.  Those  at 
Stamboul  have  a  great  reputation,  especially 
the  Kebabjis,  where  Kebab  and  fruit  only  are 
sold.  The  food  is  served  on  copper  dishes, 
and  the  customers  sit  on  stools  round  little 
tables  in  neat  gardens  attached  to  the  estab- 
lishments. 

The  Ashji  dukyan  contain  on  one  side  a 
long  range  for  cooking,  upon  which  are 
placed  bright  copper  pans,  whence  issues  the 
steam  from  a  number  of  savory  dishes.  The 
other  side  is  occupied  by  a  platform,  upon 
which  the  customers  sit  cross-legged  round 
low  Sofras,  to  partake  of  the  dishes  of  their 
choice  plentifully  placed  before  them,  ac- 
companied by  bread  and  water  ad  libitum. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 


The  Old  Turkish  Dress— European  Innovations— 
Present  Dress  of  Upper  Class  of  Turks— Peasant  Dress 
—Dress  of  Ulema— Ladies'  In-door  Costume  in  Old 
Times— Out-door  Dress—  Yashmaks  and  Feridjis— 
Green— The  Spinach  Fieldof  Broussa— Women's  Dress 
of  the  Lower  Orders— Children— The  Dress  of  Turkish 
Ladies  in  the  Present  Day— Ludicrous  Use  of  Euro- 
pean Garments— Conservatism  in  Dre6s  among  the 
Peasants— Dress  of  the  Rayahs— Macedonia— Thessaly 
— Epirns— Bulgaria— Inappropriateness  of  Dress  to 
Different  Occasions— Turkish  Neglige— An  Armenian 
Wedding  Conversation— Eastern  Notions  of  European 
Manners— Amusements  in  Turkey— Disappearance  of 
the  Old  Exercises— Hunting-Battues— Wrestling 
Matches— Musicians  and  Story-Tellers— Kara  Guez  and 
Hadji  Eyvat— Dancing  Girls — Clowns— Farces — Per- 
forming Bears— Pipe  and  Cotfee— Cafes— Amusements 
of  the  Rayahs— Greek  and  Bulgarian  Dances— Pleas- 
ure Excursions— Saints'  Days. 

On  visiting  the  East  the  first  thing  that  at- 
tracts the  attention  of  the  traveller  is  the 
variety  of  costume  he  meets  at  every  step, 
especially  among  the  Mohammedan  popula- 
tion. 

The  dress  of  the  first  Ottomans  was  sim- 
ple. Othman,  the  founder  of  the  Empire,  is 
represented  as  seated  on  a  square  throne,  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  Shahs  of  Persia,  orna- 
mented with  inlaid  mother  of  pearl.  He 
wore  on  his  head  a  red  cloth  cap  half  buried 
in  a  Tatar  turban,  and  called  Burki 
KIwrasani ;  wide  trousers,  and  a  bright-col- 
ored jacket  descending  to  his  knees.  A 
splendid  yataghan  was  fastened  in  his  belt, 
and  a  flowing  kaftan,  surmounted  by  a  red 
collar,  enveloped  the  whole.  The  boots  or 
shoes  were  of  bright  scarlet  or  yellow. 


Sultan  Orkhan  and  his  Grand  Vizir  devoted 
much  time  to  the  regulation  of  the  forms  and 
colors  of  garments  and  head-dresses.  These 
measures  subsequently  embraced  all  the  de- 
tails of  the  fashion,  material,  linings,  and 
borders  of  the  kaftans,  dolmans,  and  pelisses 
of  honor  worn  by  the  different  functionaries 
at  statu  ceremonies.  Costume  became  the 
distinguishing  mark  of  rank  among  the  ruling 
race,  and  the  token  of  creed  among  the  sub- 
ject nations. 

It  was,  however,  the  head  covering  that 
was  at  all  times  the  part  of  oriental  dress  that 
received  the  greatest  attention.  At  the  time 
of  the  conquest  the  Greeks  wore  embroidered 
or  gilt  caps,  the  Turcomans  caps  of  red  felt, 
and  the  Ottomans,  as  a  distinction,  adopted 
white  felt  caps  to  be  worn  by  the  military 
and  civil  servants.  Their  shape  and  the 
color  of  the  turbans  that  encircled  them  de- 
pended upon  the  rank  and  profession  of  the 
wearer  ;  they  were  of  varied  form  and  color, 
bright  and  picturesque,  and  harmonized  well 
with  the  equally  variegated  and  rich  pel!  sses 
and  kaftans  of  the  Mohammedans.  The  gar- 
ments worn  by  these  dignitaries  were  of  rich 
tissues  and  fine  cloths,  and  consisted  of  wide 
and  long  shalvars,  or  trousers,  vests,  rich 
shawls,  girdles,  and  jackets  of  different 
shapes. 

By  degrees,  however,  great  changes  were 
introduced  into  the  national  dress,  which 
became  extremely  rich  and  costly,  abound- 
ing in  gold  and  embroidery.  Among  the 
most  striking  of  these  costumes  was  that  of 
the  sailors  and  officers  of  the  navy,  which 
was  of  scarlet  cloth  richly  worked  with  gold. 

The  gradual  abandonment  of  all  these 
gorgeous  costumes  by  the  Ottomans  dates 
from  the  time  the  state  began  to  feel  the 
weight  of  the  immense  expense  they  caused, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  The 
uniforms  of  the  army  and  navy  were 
changed,  and  the  European  style  began  to 
be  adopted  by  the  Sultan  and  by  the  civil 
employes  ;  and  the  fashion  was  gradually 
introduced  among  the  townspeople  of  all  na- 
tionalities. 

The  present  costume  of  the  upper  class  of 
Turks  is  a  European  frock-coat  buttoned  up 
to  the  throat,  European  trousers,  and  the  fez 
— sole  relic  of  the  old  dress.  The  uniforms 
of  government  officers,  according  to  their 
rank,  are  richly  embroidered,  and  on  great 
occasions  covered  with  decorations  and  pre- 
cious stones. 

The  Ottomans  illustrate  their  love  of  dis- 
play and  wealth  by  a  proverb  which  says  : 
"  Akli  Frengistan  Mali  Hindustan,  Saltanat 
Ali  Osman," — "Mind  is  the  gift  of  the 
European,  wealth  that  of  the  Hindoo,  and 
pomp  that  of  the  Osmanli." 

The  peasants  and  poorer  orders  of  the 
Turks  have  to  a  great  extent  adhered  to  their 
primitive  costume,  which  is  principally 
composed  of  coarse  woollen  and  linen  stuffs  ; 
those  among  the  well-to-do,  who  still  adhere 
to  this  style  of  dress,  make  a  great  display  of 
gold  and  silk  embroidery  ;  the  turban,  how- 
ever, has  for  the  most  part  been  abandoned 
in  the  towns,  and  replaced  by  the  fez,  worn 
by  all  classes. 

The  dress  of  the  majority  of  the  Ulema  and 
Sottas  has  changed  only  with  respect  to  the 
turban,  which  has  been  reduced  and  made  of 
uniform  size,  and  to  the  materials  of  the 
dress,  which  are  now  less  costly  than 
formerly  and  of  European  manufacture. 
Those  members  of  these  orders  who  belong 
to  "  La  jeune  Turquie"  have  modified  their 
dress  by  the  adoption  of  European  articles  of 
apparel  which  they  wear  under  their  jubbe, 
or  pelisse. 

The  ancient  in-door  costume  worn  by  ladies 
of  rank  consisted  of  a  gown  of  cloth  or  dam- 
ask silk,  embroidered  with  bouquets  of  flow- 
ers wrought  in  silk,  with  a  border  of  similar 
workmanship.  Opening  upon  the  breast,  it 
displayed  a  handsome  silk  gauze  shirt,  the 
sleeves  of  which  hung  loosely  at  the  wrists, 
surmounted    by    a   velvet    jacket,    richly 


worked  with  gold  thread.     The  round,  flat 
cap  worn   on   the  head   was  covered   with 
pearls  and  precious  stones  ;  the  shoes  or  slip 
pers  were  equally  adorned  with  embroidery 
and  jewels. 

The  garments  that  served  to  shelter  the 
form  of  the  Turkish  lady  from  the  public 
icaze  when  walking  or  riding  abroad  consisted 
first  of  a  piece  of  white  muslin  placed  over 
the  head  and  coming  down  to  the  eyes  ; 
another  and  larger  piece  was  placed  over  the 
mouth,  covering  the  lower  part  of  the  nose, 
and  secured  at  the  back  of  the  head.  This 
covered  the  neck  and  chest,  and  hung  some 
distance  down  the  back.  A  cloak  of  cloth, 
silk,  merino,  or  some  lighter  fabric,  covered 
the  whole  person  ;  arectaugular  piece,  which 
hung  from  the  shoulders  and  reached  nearly 
to  the  ground,  completely  hid  the  form  of 
the  wearer.  The  trousers,  drawn  up  a  little 
above  the  ankle,  did  not  appear.  The  yellow 
morocco  boot  was  worn  under  a  golosh  of 
the  same  color. 

In  some  parts  of  Asia  Minora  black  shade, 
made  of  horsehair,  covers  the  eyes,  and  the 
head  is  thickly  enveloped  in  calico  cover- 
ings, no  part  of  the  face  being  visible.  The 
Mahrama  is  also  frequently  seen  in  all  i> 
of  Turkey.  This  consists  of  a  large  piece  of 
colored  stuff  fastened  at  the  waist  and  brought 
over  the  head  ;  the  face  is  covered  with  a 
colored  silk  handkerchief. 

The  yashmak  (veil)  and  fi  riilje  (cloak)  are 
universally  worn  by  Turkish  women  of  all 
clashes  (iut  of  doors.  The  former  varies,  ac- 
cording to  the  rank  and  place  of  residence  of 
the  wearers,  from  ordinary  calico  to  the 
finest  tarlatan,  while  the  latter  may  be  of 
almost  any  material  or  color.  Green,  (he 
color  of  the  Prophet's  garments,  is  sacred  to 
the  Mohammedans,  and  only  a  certain  branch 
of  the  Turkish  family  is  entitled  to  wear  it 
on  their  heads.  Those  of  both  sexes  that  en- 
joy this  privilege  are  called  MbUaJw.  Green 
feridjis  can,  however,  be  indiscriminately 
used  by  Mohammedan  women,  and  the  pref- 
erence for  this  color  is  so  strongly  marked  in 
some  localities  that  cloaks  of  other  hues  are 
seldom  seen.  In  the  town  of  Broussa,  for 
instance,  many  years  ago,  the  dark  green 
f i  riilje,  with  a  square  veil  of  coarse  linen  en- 
veloping the  head,  and  tied  under  the  chin 
over  another  piece  covering  the  mouth,  was 
the  favorite  out-of-door  costume  of  all  classes. 
During  a  visit  that  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid  paid 
to  this  tow:;,  the  whole  population  turned  out 
and  lined  the  sides  of  the  road  during  his  en- 
try. The  mass  of  Turkish  women,  distin- 
guishable from  a  certain  distance,  presented 
a  peculiar  spectacle,  which  drew  from  the 
Sultan  the  following  unromantic  remark  on 
the  veiled  beauties  who  were  impatiently 
waiting  to  gaze  upon  the  Padishah  :  "  The 
hanoums  of  Broussa  may  be  famous  for  their 
personal  charms  and  beauty ;  but  thus 
equipped  and  grouped  their  Padishah  has 
seen  little  in  them,  and  can  only  compare 
them  to  a  field  of  spinach  dotted  with  snow- 
flakes  !" 

The  clothing  of  the  women  of  the  lower 
class  is  generally  of  coarse  printed  calico, 
of  which  they  make  quilted  jackets  and  un- 
dergarments, but  as  a  rule  they  appear  very 
thinly  clad,  and  their  apparel  is  made  of  such 
poor  material  that  it  seems  almost  transpar- 
ent. The  children  usually  wear  long  quilted 
cotton  jackets  fastened  round  the  waist  by  a 
cltevre,  or  worked  handkerchief,  but  strings 
and  buttons  seem  to  be  almost  unknown. 
Men's  garments  are  generally  made  in  the 
public  shops,  and  both  cut  out  and  sewed  by 
men.  The  shirt  and  drawers  are  perfectly 
loose,  and  would  fit  equally  well  almost  any- 
body. The  trousers  consist  of  a  long  piece  of 
cloth  folded,  with  the  ends  sewed  together,  as 
well  as  one  side,  with  the  exception  of  two 
openings  left  at  the  corners  for  introducing 
the  feet ;  it  is  in  fact  a  bag,  pure  and  simple, 
with  two  holes  at  the  bottom  corners,  and 
open  at  the  top.  The  vests  of  the  men  are 
made  of  striped  cloth  and  have  long  tight 


44 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


sleeves  ;  the  girdle  is  a  shawl  bound  tightly 
rounfl  the  waist.  The  jacket  has  various 
forms.  It  is  short,  with  sleeves  coming 
down  only  to  the  elbows  ;  or  these  extend 
to,  or  even  beyond,  the  hand,  and  are  close, 
or  slit  open  from  the  shoulder  down  ;  they 
may  be  buttoned,  left  to  hang  loosely,  or  tied 
in  a  knot  behind  the  back.  In  every  case 
Oriental  clothing  lies  in  folds  about  the  per- 
son, but  easy  locomotion,  or  the  free  use  of 
the  limbs,  is  impossible. 

The  transformations  in  dress  among  Turk- 
ish ladies,  both  with  regard  to  material  and 
fashion,  are  most  disadvantageous.  Among 
the  higher  orders  the  European  dress  has 
been  adopted  for  in-door  wear,  resulting  in 
extravagance,  bad  taste,  and  incongruity. 
The  description  of  one  or  two  of  the  least 
striking  of  these  toilettes  will  suffice  to  give 
some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  Parisian 
fashions  are  generally  understood  and  worn 
by  Turkish  ladies.  Last  year,  when  paying 
a  visit  to  the  wife  of  the  Governor-General 
of  P ,  I  found  that  lady  with  her  hair  un- 
combed, wearing  a  red  cotton  dressing  gown 
made  in  the  princesse  style.  Over  this  was  a 
yellow  satin  jacket,  secured  round  the  waist 
by  a  gold  belt.  Round  her  neck  was  a  collier 
of  the  rarest  pink  coral  of  most  perfect  work- 
manship. When  this  lady  returned  my  call, 
a  very  large  quantity  of  fine  jewellery  was 
displayed  on  her  person,  but  her  dress  was  so 
badly  made  and  ill-assorted  as  to  make  her 
pretty  little  person  bear  a  great  resemblance 
to  that  of  a  polichinelle.  Madame  F.  Pasha, 
who  succeeded  her  shortly  afterwards, 
offered  a  still  more  grotesque  and  ludicrous 
picture,  both  in  her  own  person  and  in  those 
of  the  suite  of  slaves  and  companions  that 
accompanied  her.  She  was  very  plain  and 
of  a  certain  age  ;  her  costume  consisted  of  a 
skirt  of  common  crimson  silk  with  yellow 
velvet  trimmings,  surmounted  by  a  blue 
jacket  braided  with  violet.  Round  her  neck 
was  a  scarlet  tie,  and  on  her  head  an  orange- 
colored  bashbagh,  or  turban,  with  diamonds 
and  brilliants  enough  to  represent  all  the 
bright  luminaries  of  heaven. 

Her  little  daughter,  a  child  of  seven,  wore 
a  red  cotton  skirt,  with  a  quilted  jacket  of 
violet  silk,  and  a  European  hat,  m  which 
pink  and  white  satin  ribbons  predominated. 
Some  of  her  ladies- in-waiting  wore  tarlatan 
dresses  over  dirty  tumbled  skirts  which  had 
been  washed  at  some  remote  date  and  all  the 
tucks  ironed  the  wrong  way.  The  wife  of 
another  pasha,  after  taking  off  her  feridje, 
as  is  usual  on  paying  calls,  disclosed  a  wrap- 
per made  of  common  chintz,  of  a  gaudy  pat- 
tern, such  as  is  commonly  used  for  furniture- 
covers.  The  length  of  this  robe,  however, 
was  insufficient  to  conceal  an  exceedingly 
dirty  though  most  elaborate  cambric  petticoat 
of  Parisian  make. 

The  chaussure  of  Turkish  ladies,  be  it  of 
the  last  French  fashion,  or  of  the  oriental 
make  and  covered  with  gems  and  embroidery, 
never  fits  well,  nor  is  properly  worn.  Their 
stockings  are  never  darned,  and  are  used  till 
they  fall  to  pieces  ;  as  to  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  secured  the  less  said  the  better  ;  it  is 
very  improbable  that  this  part  of  a  Turkish 
beauty's  raiment  will  ever  have  the  chance 
of  instituting  a  second  Order  of  the  Garter. 
After  contemplating  this  disparaging  but  true 
picture  of  a  modern  Turkish  lady's  dress, 
the  readers  will  doubtless  agree  with  me  in 
preferring  the  elegant  costume  of  the  old- 
fashioned  class,  or  the  white  gedjlik,  still  a 
popular  neglige  costume,  with  the  bare  white 
feet  half  hidden  by  a  pretty  oriental  slipper. 
These,  together  with  the  characteristic 
shaltar,  intari,  and  kouslmk,  and  the  graceful 
fotoz  that  surmounted  the  abundant  locks 
which  fell  in  multitudinous  tresses  over  the 
shoulders  of  the  Turkish  lady  of  other  days, 
gave  her  a  cachet  of  distinction  entirely  lost 
in  the  present  day. 

After  the  conquest  strict  laws  were  issued 
as  to  the  form  of  the  head-coverings  to  be 
worn  by  the  rayahs,  determining  their  shape 


and  color,  and  the  form  of  the  shoes  and 
kaftans  in  particular.  The  kalpak,  or  hat, 
was  black,  and  in  the  shape  of  an  immense 
pumpkin  or  miniature  balloon.  The  kaftan 
also  differed  in  form  and  color  from  that 
worn  by  Mussulmans  ;  and  the  shoes  were 
black,  or  of  a  dark  plum-color.  No  exterior 
sign  of  luxury  or  wealth  was  allowed  out  of 
doors. 

As  fashion  and  custom  changed,  these  reg- 
ulations fell  into  disregard,  and  each  race  in 
towns  may  now  dress  as  it  chooses,  and 
adopt  its  national  costume  or  European  gar- 
ments without  exciting  either  surprise  or  dis- 
approval. Generally  speaking,  it  is  the  use 
of  the  latter  raiment  that  has  acquired  as- 
cendency among  townspeople,  and  the  na- 
tional costume  is  more  peculiar  to  the  peas- 
antry, and  varies  according  to  nationality  in 
elegance  and  comfort,  but  never  changes  its 
original  form. 

The  Turkish  peasant  adheres  to  his  exten- 
sive turban,  ancl  seldom  exchanges  it  for  the 
more  simple  fez  ;  the  Greek  continues  to 
wear  his  wide  vrakid  and  blue  serveta  ;  and 
the  Bulgarian  his  potour  and  gougla  (black 
sheepskin  cap).  The  Armenian  is  still  at- 
tired in  his  \ongjubbe,  or  loose  coat  and  blue 
turban,  and  the  Jew  in  his  floating  robes  of 
immemorial  form.  Some  years  ago  a  Turk- 
ish peasant  from  one  of  the  towns  of  the  in- 
terior visited  the  capital.  On  his  return  I 
asked  him  what  he  had  seen  there  to  strike 
his  fancy.  "What  did  I  see  ?"  replied  the 
good  old  fellow,  stroking  his  beard  in  dis- 
may. "  I  was  astonished  to  see  the  deform- 
ity of  human  nature  in  that  great  city  ;  the 
women  now  have  two  heads,  one  planted  on 
the  top  of  the  other,  and  the  hump,  which 
we  in  our  village  consider  a  terrible  calamity, 
seems  to  be  a  general  affliction,  but  has  de- 
scended much  below  the  shoulders  !  May 
Allah  have  mercy  upon  us  ;  but  such  prepos 
terous  changes  as  these  must  to  a  certainty 
be  the  signs  of  bad  times  I"  The  sensible 
man  alluded  to  the  enormous  chignons  and 
tournures  then  in  fashion,  and  perhaps  he 
was  not  far  wrong  in  his  ideas. 

Fashions,  like  coins,  will  penetrate  every- 
where and  find  currency  among  the  most 
savage,  who  are  glad  to  purchase  finery  at 
any  cost.     Eighteen  years  ago,  when  I  first 

visited  the  town  of  N in  Upper  Albania, 

I  was  honored  by  visits  from  the  wives  of 
all  the  dignitaries  of  the  town.  The  first 
batch  of  callers  consisted  of  about  twenty 
ladies,  whose  arrival  was  announced  to  me 
at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  who  could 
with  difficulty  be  persuaded  by  my  people 
that  the  Franks  were  always  in  their  beds  at 
that  time,  and  received  at  a  much  later  hour 
of  the  day.  "  Well,  if  that  is  the  Inglis 
moda,  we  too  must  adopt  it  !"  said  the  most 
enlightened  lady.  By  the  time  they  again 
appeared  I  was  quite  ready  to  receive  them, 
and  not  a  little  curious  to  see  what  kind  of 
birds  these  were  that  had  flocked  together  so 
early  to  visit  me.     In  the  mean  time,  as  a 

?reat  admirer  and  reader  of  the  works  of 
rord  Byron,  I  had  formed  all  kinds  of  con- 
jectures with  regard  to  the  lovely  faces  and 
picturesque  costumes  I  was  going  to  see. 
The  fair  maid  of  Athens,  and  numberless 
other  beauties,  flitted  before  my  imagination 
when  a  heavy  tramp  of  feet  (not  at  all  fairy- 
like) up  the  stairs,  preceded  by  the  announce- 
ment that  the  ladies  of  the  Chorbadjis  had 
arrived,  brought  me  back  to  reality,  and  I 
advanced  to  receive  my  guests.  And  now, 
what  was  the  spectacle  that  met  my  gaze  and 
deprived  me  of  all  control  over  my  risible 
propensities  ?  A  display  of  Parisian  articles 
of  dress  applied  in  the  most  indiscriminate 
manner,  without  any  regard  to  the  use  for 
which  they  were  manufactured  and  the  sex 
of  the  persons  for  whom  they  were  designed  5 
Stiff  black  satin  stocks  encircled  the  fair 
necks  of  some  of  the  ladies,  assorting  queerly 
with  their  graceful  and  rich  national  cos- 
tume, and  making  an  ugly  separation  be- 
tween their  head-dresses  and  the  fine  white 


crape  chemisettes  that  veiled  so  much  of  their 
necks  as  was  left  uncovered  by  elaborately 
embroidered  vests.  Below  this  vest  were  the 
graceful  floating  scarlet  trousers,  that  should 
have  fallen  to  the  ground  like  a  skirt,  secured 
only  round  the  ankle  by  an  embroidered  cuff  ; 
but  all  the  beauty  and  grace  of  this  garment 
were  lost  in  the  expansion  caused  by  a  mon- 
strous cage  crinoline  introduced  within  it, 
which  gave  the  otherwise  sylph-like  figures 
of  the  wearers  the  appearance  of  a  shapeless 
balloon  supported  on  large  pairs  of  gentle- 
men's patent-leather  boots,  proudly  dis- 
played ! 

The  costumes  worn  in  the  towns  of  Thes- 
saly,  Epirus,  and  part  of  Macedonia  are  half 
Greek  and  half  Albanian.  They  comprise  a 
variety  of  forms,  all  more  or  less  original  and 
picturesque.  The  headgear  of  the  men  is 
usually  the  small  Turkish  fez,  surmounted 
by  a  blue  tassel ;  the  wider  and  longer  Greek 
fez  is  also  worn,  falling  with  its  long  tassel 
on  one  side  of  the  head.  The  tight  braided 
vest  and  jacket  with  hanging  sleeves  over  a 
white  linen  shirt  form  the  upper  part  of  the 
dress  ;  the  lower  comprises  the  fustanella,  or 
white  kilt,  or  the  wide  and  long  vrakia,  de- 
scending to  the  ankle,  or  only  covering  the 
knee,  terminated  by  tight  gaiters  of  braided 
cloth.  The  serveta,  or  silk  girdle,  is  generally 
of  a  bright  color,  and  often  richly  embroid- 
ered with  gold  and  silk  thread.  Those  worn 
by  the  peasantry  are  frequently  of  gray 
tweed  worked  with  darker  braid,  and  the 
fustanella  is  replaced  by  a  linen  blouse  worn 
over  a  pair  of  short  trousers  ;  gaiters  and 
pointed  shoes  or  sandals  complete  the  dress. 

The  costume  worn  by  the  women  varies 
according  to  the  locality,  but  is  always  very 
graceful  and  pretty.  The  head-dress  con- 
sists of  a  flat  cloth  or  felt  cap  encircled  by 
embroidered  velvet,  rows  of  coins,  or  other 
ornaments,  or  by  a  thick  braid  of  hair.  The 
centre  is  often  occupied  by  a  large  pearl 
ornament.  This  cap  is  worn  on  one  side, 
and  the  hair  under  it  is  parted  in  the  centre 
and  smoothly  brushed  over  the  ears,  plaited, 
or  allowed  to  hang  loose. 

The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  inclosed  in 
a  tight  short-waisted  bodice,  open  in  front, 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  chest,  over  a  fine 
gauze  chemisette  crossed  over  the  bosom  ;  a 
short  and  full  skirt,  or  shalvar,  and  belt  of 
various  patterns  and  materials  are  worn  in 
the  house.  Out  of  doors  a  long  jacket 
is  worn,  fitting  tightly  to  the  figure  and 
reaching  nearly  to  the  feet ;  it  is  generally 
made  of  fine  cloth,  plain,  or  richly  embroid- 
ered with  gold,  and  invariably  lined  with 
fur  ;  a  colored  kerchief,  carelessly  thrown 
over  the  head,  completes  the  costume.  The 
tissues  used  for  these  garments  are  of  silk, 
cotton,  and  wool,  enlivened  by  silken  and 
other  embroidery. 

The  dress  of  the  peasants  is  very  similar, 
except  that  it  is  made  of  coarser  materials,  is 
plainer,  and  comprises  a  great  variety  of 
bright  colors. 

The  dress  of  the  Bulgarian  women  varies 
according  to  the  locality.  North  of  the  Bal- 
kans it  is  entirely  national,  and  has  a  pictu- 
resque appearance,  but  is  heavy  and  incom- 
modious to  the  wearer,  while  that  of  the  men, 
though  more  simple  and  convenient,  is  by  no 
means  elegant ;  the  only  part  of  it  to  which 
some  attention  is  paid  in  the  rural  districts  is 
the  blouse,  which  is  carefully  and  elaborately 
embroidered  round  the  collar  and  wide 
sleeves.  In  Macedonia  this  attention  is  ex- 
tended to  the  white  turban,  which  replaces 
the  gougla.  This  is  a  long  towel,  the  ends 
embroidered  in  tapestry  stitch,  which  is 
twisted  round  the  red  fez,  and  one  end  al- 
lowed to  fall  on  the  collar,  hiding  in  part  the 
long  and  dishevelled  hair  allowed  to  grow 
at  the  back  of  the  head.  This  tuft  of  hair  is 
sometimes  plaited,  and  bears  a  great  resem- 
blance to  the  Chinese  coiffure.  On  feast-days 
a  flower  is  placed  in  the  turban.     The  Bul- 

f Brians  of  the  towns  have  adopted  a  more 
luropeanized  costume  made  of  thayak,   :. 


THE  PEOPLE   OP   TURKEY. 


45 


thick  native  cloth.  These  home-woven  fab- 
rics are  very  substantial,  and  sometimes  the 
gray  and  white  an-  beautiful,  but  the  rest  are 
Ugly,  especially  the  shot  and  striped  ones, 
on  account  of  the  colors  being  badly  assorted. 
The  Bulgarian  townspeople  generally  choose 
these  stuffs  for  their  garments,  and  add  to 
their  unbecomingness  by  the  uncouth  shapes 
in  which  they  cut  them,  the  trousers  being 
always  either  too  short  or  too  loose,  and  the 
coats  and  vests  most  shapeless  and  slovenly. 
This  description  does  not  of  course  include 
the  higher  classes,  who  pay  great  attention 
to  their  toilettes. 

What  is  principally  wanting  in  these  na- 
tional costumes  is  the  being  adapted  to  the 
occasions  on  which  they  are  worn.  For  ex- 
ample, for  everyday  wear  both  sexes  choose 
their  plainest  suits,  and  keep  them  on  from 
morning  till  night,  whether  in  the  field  or  in 
the  house.  The  gala  costumes  are  of  fine 
cloth,  or  still  more  delicate  material,  and  are 
donned  on  feast-days  and  other  great  occa- 
sions, and  once  put  on  are  worn  all  day  long, 
getting  covered  with  dust  out  of  doors,  and 
yet  serving  for  the  soiree  and  the  dance. 

This  incongruity  also  extends  to  season. 
The  uniform  long  jackets  lined  with  fur  are 
worn  by  the  women  in  winter  and  in  the  heat 
of  a  long  summer's  day. 

There  is  no  evening  dress  comprised  in  the 
wardrobe  of  an  Oriental.  The  refinements 
of  society  have  prescribed  none  but  that 
which  his  easy-going  and  indolent  life  claims 
from  him,  viz.,  hisgedjlik,  or  dressing-gown. 
The  Turk,  the  Armenian,  and  the  native 
Jew  alike  put  on  this  no  doubt  delightfully 
comfortable,  but  by  no  means  elegant,  gar- 
ment immediately  on  re-entering  the  bosom 
of  their  families  after  the  labors  of  the  day 
are  concluded.  This  custom  is  so  prevalent 
among  the  Turks  that  as  soon  .as  the  return 
of  the  bey  or  effendi  is  announced  the  wife 
unfolds  the  wrapper  and  holds  it  ready  for 
him  to  put  on.  This  attire  is  sometimes  ren- 
dered still  more  neglige  by  a  complete  ex- 
change of  the  day  dress  for  that  commonly 
appropriate  for  use  at  night.  The  bey  or 
pasha  may  return  to  the  Selamlik  so  attired, 
and  receive  his  visitors  there,  should  they  be 
of  equal  or  inferior  rank  to  himself  ;  but  if 
of  higher  rank  he  must  receive  them  in  his 
day  costume. 

The  adoption  of  the  European  dress  has 
everywhere  created  a  display  of  bad  taste. 
On  first  changing  their  costume,  the  natives 
proudly  profess  a  great  partiality  for  it,  and 
call  themselves  followers  of  the  "  A  la 
Franca,"  or  Frank  fashions.  Those  few 
who  possess  some  education  alone  make  the 
change  without  grievously  shocking  the  taste 
of  their  European  neighbors. 

A  few  instances  of  the  manner  in  which 
"  Frank"  dress  and  etiquette  are  understood 
by  the  majority  will  give  the  reader  a  better 
idea  than  any  explanation  on  the  subject. 

I  was  present  at  an  Armenian  wedding, 
when  the  house  was  crowded  by  a  large  com- 
pany composed  of  both  sexes.  The  ladies, 
however,  had  almost  monopolized  the  draw- 
ing-room, which  was  furnished  with  long 
Turkish  sofas  running  round  the  walls  on 
three  sides,  occupied  by  three  rows  of  ladies. 
The  first  row  were  seated  on  the  cushions,  the 
second  sat  cross-legged  in  front,  and  the  third 
contented  themselves  with  the  extreme  edge, 
while  some  other  ladies  and  a  few  of  the 
other  sex  were  favored  with  chairs,  or  walked 
about  the  room.  I  had  prudently  possessed 
myself  of  a  chair,  and  placed  it  in  a  position 
to  have  a  good  coup  d'ail  of  the  scene,  and 
be  near  enough  to  the  sofa  to  hear  and  join 
in  the  conversation  of  some  of  its  occupants. 
It  was  by  no  means  an  uninteresting  sight ; 
there  was  the  bride,  the  queen  of  the  fete, 
seated  on  a  pile  of  cushions  in  the  corner  re- 
served for  her,  surrounded  by  the  triple  line 
of  ladies  representing  all  ages,  types,  and 
fashions.  The  dark  and  unassuming  attire 
of  the  aged  pleasingly  contrasted  with  the 
gay  dresses  of  the  young  and  pretty,  radiant 


with  the  glitter  of  jewelry  and  the  sparkle  of 
many  pairs  of  bright  black  eyes  that  fre- 
quently met  and  questioned  each  other  ;  a 
not  unpleasant  way  of  making  up  for  the 
oriental  laconism  generally  observed  in  large 
assemblies,  when  conversation  is  carried  on 
in  low  tones,  and  generally  consists  only  of 
a  passing  joke  or  criticism  on  the  appearance 
of  others  of  the  company.  Some  of  these 
remarks  I  found  very  amusing  ;  for  instance, 
a  thin,  yellow  brunette  said  to  her  neighbor, 
"  Doudou,  do  you  notice  how  stiff  and 
stately  Mariemme  Hanoum  sits  in  her  new 
polka?  Her  husband,  Baron  Carabet,*  who 
has  just  returned  from  Constantinople,  has 
brought  her  a  machine  made  of  whalebone 
and  steel,  in  which  the  Franks  cage  their 
wives  in  order  to  fill  up  what  is  missing  and 
tone  down  what  is  superfluous."  "  Chok 
shay  I"  f  exclaimed  her  companion,  an  ex- 
ceedingly stout  lady,  casting  a  hasty  glance 
over  her  voluminous  person.  "  I  wonder  if 
the  like  is  to  be  found  in  the  charshi  (bazar), 
so  many  articles  of  dress  have  lately  been 
brought  from  Europe  by  one  of  the  shop- 
keepers I" 

This  conversation  was  brought  to  an  ab- 
rupt termination  by  the  exclamation  of 
"  Ouff  !  Aman  !"  from  a  third  lady  who  was 
sitting  cross  legged,  and  evidently  in  an  un- 
comfortable position.  "  Ouff  !  Aman  !"  she 
repeated,  stretching  out  her  feet  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, and  then  proceeded  to  pull  off  her 
socks,  quietly  folded  them  up,  and  put  them 
in  her  pocket.  She  was  an  elderly  lady,  evi- 
dently of  the  old  school,  for  her  proceedings 
shocked  one  much  younger  than  herself 
seated  near,  and  provoked  from  her  some 
remark  on  the  impropriety  she  had  com- 
mitted. The  old  lady,  however,  could  not 
be  prevailed  upon  to  see  it,  and  replied  very 
quietly : 

"  Kesim,  what  does  it  matter?  all  now  is 
'  a  la  Franca, '  and  we  may  do  as  we  please  ! ' ' 

Incidents  of  European  fashions,  com- 
pletely distorted  into  alarming  caricatures, 
are  still  very  frequent,  and,  what  is  more 
serious,  are  often  accompanied  by  so  great 
an  absence  of  all  knowledge  of  the  rules  of 
good  breeding  that  everything  out  of  the 
common,  however  free  or  strange  it  may  be, 
is  put  down  to  the  "  a  la  Franca,"  or  Euro- 
pean liberty.  Only  two  years  ago,  at  a  ball 
given  by  one  of  my  friends,  a  functionary  of 
the  Porte,  Armenian  by  birth,  coolly  entered 
the  boudoir,  pulled  off  hisboots,  which  were, 
it  appears,  too  tight  for  him,  and  seated  him- 
self on  a  sofa  smoking  his  cigarette.  This 
gentleman  was  requested  by  the  host  to  re- 
sume his  chaussure  and  withdraw  from  the 
house  ;  and  yet  civilized  notions  had  so  far 
penetrated  the  somewhat  dull  imagination  of 
this  Effendi  as  to  have  induced  him  to  use 
visiting-cards  upon  which  was  engraved,  to- 
gether with  his  name,  his  title  of  "  Membre 
perpetuel  de  la  Justice,"  surmounted  by  a 
gilt  pair  of  scales. 

Dress  and  amusement  are  thought  by  many 
to  denote  the  degree  of  refinement  and  mental 
development  of  nations.  There  is  certainly 
some  truth  in  this  theory,  and  I  have  often 
allowed  my  opinion  of  a  people  and  my  be- 
lief in  its  prosperity  and  progress  to  be 
guided  in  some  degree  by  their  apparently 
most  trivial  characteristics. 

To  seek  through  these  means,  however,  to 
arrive  at  an  estimate  of  the  Turkish  charac- 
ter is  a  somewhat  difficult  task.  The  na- 
tional costume  is  disappearing,  and  is  being 
replaced  by  a  counterfeit  or  borrowed  attire. 
With  regard  to  amusement  the  difficulty  be- 
comes still  greater,  for  all  the  games  that 
were  characteristic  of  the  East,  such  as  that 
of  the  Djerid,  or  throwing  the  lance  on  horse- 
back when  galloping  at  full  speed,  have  fall- 
en into  disuse  ;  together  with  the  now  for- 
gotten races  and  target-practising  in  which 
the  youth  of  the  two  towns  used  to  display 
their  splendid  arms  and  prove  their  capacity 


*  "  Baron"  signifies  Mr. 


t  Wonderful! 


for  manly  and  warlike  pursuits.  The  grand 
hunting  parties,  in  which  the  grandees  and 
even  the  Sultans  loved  to  take  part,  now 
only  take  place  occasionally,  headed  by  some 
fine  old  governor-general  of  the  ancient  type. 
In  such  instances  the  chase  becomes  most  en- 
joyable and  delightful.  Many  years  ago, 
while  residing  in  a  country  town,  I  had  seve- 
ral times  the  pleasure  of  taking  part  in  these 
animated  coursing  parties  organized  by  the 
governor  of  the  town,  and  headed  by  him  in 
]  person.  The  company  would  sometimes 
I  consist  of  twenty  cavaliers,  with  an  equal 
number  of  mounted  attendants  leading  the 
eapon ,  or  fine  greyhounds  peculiar  to  Albania. 
Proceeding  at  first  in  a  compact  body  across 
the  hills,  down  on  the  fertile  plains  on  the 
|  borders  of  the  Maritza,  as  we  neared  the  open 
country  and  descended  the  slopes,  the  caval- 
cade dispersed,  the  fiery  horses  could  scarce- 
ly be  controlled,  and  the  dogs,  trembling  with 
excitement,  strove  to  break  from  the  leashes. 
The  sportsmen  in  their  variegated  costumes, 
stimulated  by  their  surroundings,  lost  their  air 
of  lassitude  and  torpor,  and  appeared  like  the 
traditional  Osmanli  of  old.  The  scattered 
band  of  cavaliers  would  explore  the  ground 
until  the  frightened  and  startled  animals, 
driven  out  of  their  haunts,  would  after  a  few 
bounds  come  to  a  dead  stop,  and  then  flee, 
pursued  by  the  hounds  and  followed  by  the 
hunters. 

There  was  something  so  animating  in  the 
whole  scene  that  even  a  timid  woman  might 
have  disregarded  the  danger  of  fracturing 
her  collar-bone  and  willingly  taken  part  in 
it. 

The  other  excursions,  carried  on  with  equal 
spirit,  consist  of  battues  of  large  and  small 
game,  which  take  place  on  the  estates  of  the 
beys,  who  issue  invitations  to  their  friends, 
throw  open  the  gates  of  their  chiftliks  or 
farms,  and  receive  visitors  with  every  mark 
of  hospitality.  At  dawn  the  whole  party  as- 
sembles at  the  appointed  place,  previously 
surrounded  by  the  tenants  and  laborers  be- 
longing to  the  property,  who  beat  in  the 
game. 

These  parties,  I  am  assured,  are  much  ap- 
preciated by  European  sportsmen,  who  en 
joy  the  wildnessof  the  scenery,  as  well  as  the 
shyness  of  the  birds,  which,  unlike  their  pre- 
served kinsfolk  in  England,  are  complete 
strangers  to  contact  with  man  in  their  un- 
frequented forests  and  plains. 

An  interest  is  still  evinced  by  all  classes  in 
the  wrestling  matches  which  aire  usually  held 
on  the  commons  outside  the  towns.  On 
these  occasions  the  greater  part  of  the  popu- 
lation turns  out  and  seats  itself  in  a  closely- 
packed  circle.  The  combatants,  stripped  "to 
the  waist,  enter  the  ring,  encouraged  by  the 
crowd  ;  closely  watching  each  other's  move- 
ments, each  awaits  a  favorable  opportunity 
for  seizing  his  antagonist,  whom,  by  a  dex- 
terous catch,  he  hopes  to  throw.  No  ani- 
mosity is  displayed  by  any  of  the  rivals, 
be  they  Turks,  Christians,  or  gypsies.  The 
spectators  take  a  deep  interest  in  these  con- 
tests, but  seldom  express  their  approbation 
or  disapproval  in  a  very  marked  manner. 

Minstrels  still  play  a  prominent  part  among 
all  classes  of  the  Turkish  population.  These 
are  professional  artists,  well  versed  in  im- 
provisation, and  skilful  players  on  musical 
instruments,  especially  the  Kanoun,  a  spe- 
cies of  zither,  for  which  a  great  partiality  is 
displayed.  Whatever  their  nationality,  they 
are  as'welcome  in  the  Konaks  of  the  highest 
dignitaries  as  among  the  crowds  that  flock 
on  Fridays  and  other  holidays  to  some  cafe, 
where,  seated  in  a  prominent  place,  the  bard 
pours  forth  his  strains  or  relates  his  masscil 
(story),  which  generally  turns  upon  love, 
and,  though  wanting  neither  in  interest  nor 
brilliancy^  is  accompanied  by  unpleasant  ges- 
ticulation, and  is  hardly  meet  either  for  the 
ears  or  the  eyes  of  the  young. 

When  I  was  in  Albania,  the  Mushir  of 
Roumelia,  with  his  corps  d'urmee,  passed 
through  the  town,  and  as  a  mark  of  civility 


46 


THE   PEOPLE  OF  TURKEY. 


sent  his  minstrel  to  my  house  to  enliven  me 
with  his  performance.  Oriental  music,  how- 
ever, has  not  as  a  rule  an  enlivening  effect 
upon  Europeans.  But  there  is  a  pensiveness 
aufl  a  sadness  in  it  that  to  me  have  an  irre- 
sistible charm. 

Another  amusement  is  that  of  the  Kara 
Guez  and  Hadji  Eyvat,  a  kind  of  Punch  and 
Judy.  This  is  a  most  indecent  representa- 
tion, and  the  language  that  accompanies  it  is 
quite  in  harmony  with  the  scenes  ;  but  it 
greatly  delights  the  Turkish  ladies,  for  whose 
diversion  it  is  frequently  introduced  into  the 
harems.  To  this  class  of  recreation  may  be 
added  the  obscene  Kueheks,  or  dancing  wo- 
men and  boys  ;  the  MukkaUU,  or  clowns,  who 
amuse  the  company  with  their  jests  ;  the 
Meydan  Oyoun,  or  comic  plays  held  in  the 
open  air  ;  the  performing  monkeys  and  bears, 
trained  by  hardy  Pomaks  or  gypsies,  who 
lead  these  creatures  from  town  to  town,  and 
force  them  to  display  the  accomplishments 
they  have  learned  under  the  discipline  of  the 
lash. 

What  a  Turk  heartily  enjoys  is  his  pipe 
and  coffee,  sitting  by  the  side  of  a  running 
stream  or  in  some  spot  commanding  a  fine 
view.  This  quiescent  pleasure  he  calls 
"  taking  Kaif."  On  the  whole,  his  capacity 
for  enjoyment  is  rather  of  a  passive  than  an 
active  kind. 

Clubs,  reading-rooms,  or  other  resorts  for 
social  and  intellectual  improvement  are  quite 
unknown  among  the  Turks.  Their  place  is, 
however,  filled  to  some  extent  by  the  old- 
fashioned  cafe  for  the  Osmanli  of  mature  age, 
and  by  the  Casinos  and  other  places  of  the 
same  doubtful  character  for  "  La  jeune  Tur- 
quie,"  who  finite  de  mieux  resort  thitherto 
enjoy  the  delights  of  taking  their  rata,  or 
sometimes  ruining  themselves  by  indulging  in 
rouge  el  noir  or  other  games  of  chauce  which 
they  do  not  understand,  and,  to  do  them  jus- 
tice, do  not  as  a  rule  largely  indulge  in. 

The  amusements  of  the  Rayahs  are  neither 
very  brilliant  nor  very  varied,  but  they  are 
part  of  a  more  healthy  social  life,  and  serve 
as  a  point  of  union  between  the  sexes,  in- 
creasing the  joys  and  pleasures  of  home  ex- 
istence, whose  monotony  they  do  not  often 
interrupt.  The  great  delight  of  these  people 
is  the  national  dances  of  the  Greeks,  Bulga- 
rians, Armenians,  and  Jews,  always  gladly 
indulged  in  when  a  chance  offers.  Such  op- 
portunities arc  generally  weddings  and  great 
feast-days,  and  carnival  time.  With  the 
Jews  and  Armenians  it  is  an  insipid  formali- 
ty, and  the  similarity  of  the  costume  of  the 
women,  who  alone  indulge  in  it,  the  want  of 
variety  in  the  step,  and  the  dull  and  graceless 
manner  in  which  it  is  performed,  deprive  it 
of  any  claim  to  be  called  an  amusement. 
But  with  the  Greeks  and  Bulgarians  it  is 
quite  a  different  matter  ;  both  enter  into  it 
with  a  zest  and  animation  delightful  to  wit- 
ness. The  Greeks  collect  in  a  ring  to  dance 
the  surto  of  immemorial  date.  Holding  each 
other  by  the  hand,  and  led  by  the  most  agile 
youth  and  maiden,  who  hold  the  corners  of 
a  handkerchief,  they  perform  a  variety  of 
measured  steps  and  evolutions,  while  the 
surrounding  ring  execute  a  step  to  the  sound 
of  the  music  that  accompanies  the  dance.  All 
the  movements  are  graceful,  and  performed 
with  precision,  at  some  times  becoming  more 
animated,  and  at  others  falling  back  into  a 
slow  measured  step.  The  ring  breaks  at  in- 
tervals and  allows  those  wishing  to  retire  to 
do  so,  or  receives  fresh  additions  from  the 
outsiders. 

The  Bulgarian  hora  is  performed  to  the 
sound  of  the gnida,  or  bagpipe.  The  sounds  of 
this  instrument  act  like  magic  upon  these  gay 
and  pleasure-loving  people,  who  no  sooner 
hear  its  discordant  groans  than,  forming  into 
a  circle  and  heMing  each  other  by  the  belt, 
they  begin  to  stamp  and  turn  round  in  an 
earnest  and  excited  manner,  appearing  thor- 
oughly absorbed  in  the  performance. 

There  is  a  second  kind  of  dance  in  which 
the   Bulgarians    take    great    pleasure,    that 


known  as  the  "bear  dance."  It  is  per- 
formed by  a  man  dressed  in  a  bearskin,  who 
presents  himself  to  the  company,  led  by  a 
pretty  girl,  who  makes  him  perform  all  kinds' 
of  pranks  and  buffooneries,  greatly  to  the  en- 
joyment of  the  spectators,  who  occasionally 
join  in  the  dance  and  give  chase  to  the  bear. 
I  do  not  think  it  is  possible  to  find  a  people 
who  can  enjoy  more  heartily  the  wild  music 
of  the  gaidn  than  the  Bulgarian,  or  enter 
more  enthusiastically  into  the  dance  than  lie 
does.  With  the  Greeks,  dancing  is  reserved 
for  appointed  times  and  seasons,  but  the  Bul- 
garian, be  he  in  the  field  or  resting  on  the 
common  on  a  Pntsnik  day,  will  come  for- 
ward and  indulge  in  it  as  his  greatest  delight. 

After  the  dance  come  the  small  pleasure 
parties,  for  which  families  club  together  and 
go  to  spend  a  few  days  in  some  picturesque 
village  or  hospitable  monastery,  or  to  some 
wild  watering-place,  where  they  can  enjoy 
the  baths  to  their  hearts'  content.  The  min- 
eral springs  are  encircled  by  the  remains  of 
magnificent  old  Roman  baths,  roofless  for  the 
most  part,  but  evidently  indestructible  so  far 
as  the  splendid  marble  basins  that  receive  the 
water  are  concerned. 

Every  saint  seems,  by  some  ubiquitous 
means,  to  possess  a  shrine  in  every  town, 
village,  or  monastery.  To  these  all  the  peo- 
ple resort  on  their  anniversaries,  attired  in 
thejr  best,  to  see  and  to  be  seen,  and  any  per- 
son, be  it  man,  woman,  or  child,  bearing  the 
name  of  the  saint,  is  visited  by  all  its  friends 
and  relatives  during  the  day  ;  generally  speak- 
ing, a  party  is  given  in  the  evening,  where, 
if  instrumental  music  and  dancing  do  not 
form  part  of  the  entertainment,  a  variety  of 
round  games,  cards,  vocal  music,  and  other 
similar  diversions,  are  had  recourse  to.  Di- 
vers refreshments,  in  the  form  of  excellent 
native  wine,  fruit,  and  cakes,  are  offered 
during  the  evening  after  the  formal  handing 
round  of  glieo  and  coffee.  These  gatherings, 
often  kept  up  to  a  late  hour,  always  conclude 
peacefully,  and  cases  of  disorder  and  drunk- 
enness are  unheard  of,  and  indeed  are  of  rare 
occurrence  at  any  time,  excepting  at  a  late 
hour  at  the  place  where  a  fair  is  held,  when 
a  few  mauvais  sujets  may  remain  behind  in  a 
disorderly  frame  of  mind. 

This  description  refers  only  to  the  working 
classes  and  tradespeople.  Among  the  bet- 
ter educated  classes  music,  conversation, 
theatricals,  and  in  fact  almost  everything 
that  belongs  to  European  society  is  included, 
although,  as  may  be  supposed,  deficiencies 
as  to  dress,  etiquette,  and  other  details  are 
to  be  remarked  in  the  provinces ;  but  a 
marked  desire  for  improvement,  especially 
among  the  Greeks,  is  everywhere  noticeable. 
Each  community,  however,  keeps  within  its 
own  circle,  a  drawback  that  renders  the  soci- 
ety limited  and  prevents  the  sociable  feeling 
that  should  prevail  among  them. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

TURKISH    WEDDINGS. 

Early  Marriage— Betrothal— Divorce— Love  Matches 
— The  Trousseau  —  Wedding  Ceremonies  —  Marital 
Discipline  in  Macedonia— Monday  :  Arrangement  of 
Trousseau  in  Bridegroom's  House— Tuesday :  Bathing 
the  Bride — Wednesday :  Visit  of  the  Bridegroom's 
Party  to  Bride's  House— Great  Festivities— The  Kena 
—Thursday:  The  Girding  of  the   Bride— The  Bride- 

froom    goes    to    the    Mosque — Final    Amenities    of 
'riendship— Interested  Marriages. 

The  Turks  generally  marry  early,  from 
seventeen  for  the  men,  and  from  eleven  for 
the  girls — who  all  marry,  so  that  an  old 
maid,  like  many  other  European  institutions, 
is  absolutely  unknown  in  Turkey.  This 
custom  of  early  marriages  is  encouraged  by 
'  parents  as  a  check  upon  their  sons  contract- 
ing wild  habits.  It  may  in  this  respect  have 
the  desired  effect,  but  must  be  very  injurious 
in  every  other.  How  can  a  youth  of  seven- 
teen or  twenty,  whose  studies,  if  he  by 
chance  has  pursued  any,  are  not  finished, 
whose  career  in  life  is  yet  to  begin,  assume 
the  weight  of  a  family  without  morally  and 


physically  suffering  for  it  ?  Ambition,  the 
mainspring  of  a  young  man's  exertions, 
damped  by  the  early  contraction  of  sedentary 
habits,  soon  degenerates  into  listless  indiffer- 
ence. The  intellectual  faculties,  crossed  in 
the  pursuit  of  knowledge  by  a  current  of 
ideas  and  responsibilities  totally  foreign  to 
them,  are  checked  before  they  have  had  their 
due  course  ;  while,  physically  speaking,  ha- 
rem life,  bad  at  all  the  stages  of  the  life  of 
a  Turk  among  the  higher  orders,  must  be  in- 
calculably worse  when  entered  upon  so  early. 

The  Nekyah,  or  betrothal,  comprises  the 
fiancailles  as  well  as  the  matrimonial  contract. 
The  preliminaries  of  the  engagement  are  un- 
dertaken by  the  parents  of  the  contracting 
parties.  The  mother  or  some  near  relative 
of  the  young  man,  in  company  with  a  few  of 
her|f  riends  and  the  Koulatouz,  starts  on  a  tour 
of  inspection,  visiting  families  known  to  pos- 
sess marriageable  daughters.  The  object  of 
the  visit  being  made  known,  they  are  admit- 
ted, and  the  eldest  girl  presents  herself,  offers 
coffee,  kisses  hands  all  round,  waits  to  take 
the  empty  cups,  and  then  disappears,  her  in- 
spectors having  to  content  themselves  with 
the  short  view  they  have  thus  had  of  her. 
Should  this  prove  satisfactory,  they  at  once 
enter  into  negotiations,  make  inquiries  as  to 
the  age  and  dowry  of  the  girl,  answer  coun- 
ter-inquiries on  the  condition  of  the  youth, 
and  say  that,  if  it  be  agreeable  to  both  par- 
ties and  it  is  Kismet  that  the  marriage  should 
take  place,  they  will  come  again  and  make 
the  final  arrangements.  On  the  mother's  re- 
turn home,  she  gives  a  faithful  description  of 
the  maiden's  appearance  to  her  son,  and 
should  this  meet  with  his  approval,  the  inter- 
mediaries are  commissioned  to  settle  all  pre- 
liminaries. 

The  dowry  is,  of  course,  among  Muslims 
given  by  the  bridegroom  ;  the  only  dowry 
Turkish  brides  are  bound  to  bring  consists 
in  a  rich  trousseau.  Should  the  lady  possess 
any  property  the  husband  cannot  assume  any 
right  over  it,  nor  over  any  of  the  rest  of  her 
belongings.  The  wisdom  and  generosity  of 
this  law  cannot  be  too  highly  commended  ; 
it  is  an  indispensable  clause  in  the  canons  of 
polygamy.  So  easy  is  it  for  a  Turk  to 
divorce  his  wife  that  he  has  only  to  say  to 
her  in  a  moment  of  anger,  ' '  Cover  thy  face, 
thy  nekyah  is  in  thy  hands,"  and  she  ceases 
to  be  his  wife,  and  must  at  once  leave  his 
abode,  carrying  with  her,  luckily  for  her, 
"  bag  and  baggage." 

The  privileges  of  divorce  thus  indulgently 
permitted  to  a  man  are  entirely  beyond  the 
reach  of  a  woman,  whom  no  human  power 
can  release  from  her  nekyah  vows  without 
her  husband's  free  consent.  And  even  if  she 
gain  her  husband's  consent  to  a  divorce,  she 
thereby  loses  her  dowry  and  trousseau,  which 
she  would  retain  if  divorced  not  of  her  own 
motion.  This  unfair  restriction  gives  rise  to 
many  unhappy  disputes,  issuing  in  litigation 
which  ever  proves  vain  and  fruitless  against 
the  obstinacy  of  the  husband  or,  even  worse, 
his  helplessness,  should  he  become  insane  ; 
for  a  lunatic's  word  of  divorce  cannot  count 
before  the  law. 

The  following  sad  history  of  a  bride  I 
knew  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  latter  case. 
The  heroine  was  a  fine  brunette,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Yousuf  Bey,  a  rich  and  influential  per- 
sonage in  the  town  of  B .     A  nekyah  had 

been  contracted  between  her  and  a  young 
man  rather  queer  and  strange  in  his  manners, 
but  very  wealthy  —  a  consideration  which 
more  than  counterbalanced  his  tailings  in  the 
estimation  of  her  avaricious  father. 

The  Duhun,  or  wedding-day,  fixed  upon, 
the  festivities  began  according  to  the  routine 
of  pomp  and  display  usual  among  the  wealthy. 
As  the  wedding-day  approached  the  bride- 

froom  became  more  and  more  strange  ;  now 
ailing  into  fits  of  deep  melancholy,  now  into 
merriment. 

His  friends,  noticing  this,  suggested  that  it 
wasjahilik,  or  childishness,  occasioned  by  the 
prospect  of  his  approaching  happiness,  cross* 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


47 


ed  by  the  thought  that  he  had  no  father  to 
participate  in  it,  and  no  mother  to  second 
him  in  his  duties  by  welcomng  his  bride  to 
her  future  home. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Duhun  went  on  all 
the  same  ;  the  bride,  decked  in  her  splendid 
array,  arrived  at  the  bridegroom's  house, 
and,  was  met,  according  to  custom,  by  the 
brii'egroom,  who,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Koulavoia,  was  waiting  to  conduct  her  to  her 
apartment.  The  emotion  of  the  moment  was 
too  much  for  his  vacillating  mind.  He  fixed 
his  gaze  for  a  moment  upon  his  bride  with  a 
vacant  stare  ;  her  face  was  unknown  to  him. 
The  tinsel,  the  bridal  veil,  the  crowd  of  ha- 
nouins  surrounding  her,  failed  to  impress  him 
with  the  solemnity  of  the  event  his  mind  no 
longer  comprehended. 

In  vain  the  shrill  voice  of  the  Kmdawiz 
strove  to  make  him  understand  her  repeated 
suggestion  that  he  should  conduct  his  bride 
upstairs.  Her  words,  confusedly  caught, 
and  mingled  with  some  flickering  notion  of 
what  he  ought  to  do,  at  length  urged  him  to 
action.  He  seized  the  Koidawuz,  a  frightful 
old  witch,  passed  her  arm  through  his,  and 
with  the  determination  and  obstinacy  of  the 
madman  led  her  upstairs  and  placed  her  in 
the  bridal  bower.  A  miserable  scene  of  con- 
fusion ensued.  The  poor  bride,  faint  and 
sick  at  heart,  re-entered  her  coach  and  hur- 
ried back  to  the  paternal  roof,  while  the  ha- 
noums  made  a  rush  towards  their  yashmak* 
and  feridjes,  dismayed  at  the  misfortune  and 
alarmed  by  the  screams  of  the  old  Koulawm, 
who  was  making  frantic  efforts  to  release 
herself  from  the  tight  embrace  of  the  maniac. 
Help  from  the  Selamlik  soon  arrived,  and  the 
madman  was  secured. 

Seven  years  have  elapsed,  the  unhappy 
bride  is  still  pining  over  her  misfortunes  and 
the  loss  of  the  liberty  which  all  efforts  have 
thus  far  proved  unable  to  restore  to  her. 

A  Turkish  husband  has  the  power  of 
divorcing  his  wife  and  taking  her  back 
twice  ;  but  should  he  send  her  away  for  the 
third  time,  she  must  be  married  to  another 
man  before  she  can  again  return  to  her  first 
husband.  This  strange  and  disgusting  law 
is  meant  as  a  check  upon  people  disposed  to 
abuse  too  often  the  privilege  of  divorce.  The 
person  asked  to  fulfil  this  strange  position  of 
intermediary  husband  must  be  advanced  in 
years,  generally  belongs  to  the  poorer  class, 
and  receives  a  sum  of  money  for  his  services. 
The  conditions  are  that  he  should  enter  the 
abode  of  the  lady  for  one  night  only,  with 
every  right  over  her  of  a  legal  husband,  and 
quit  it  the  next  morning,  telling  her,  "  Thy 
liberty  is  in  thy  hands,  thou  art  no  longer 
my  wife."  Cases  have  been  known  when 
the  old  gentleman,  finding  his  position  pleas- 
ant, has  refused  to  give  the  lady  up,  and  if 
this  should  happen  the  first  husband  is  whol- 
ly without  remedy,  and  must  forego  his  de- 
sire of  reunion  with  his  former  wife. 

An  incident  of  the  kind  happened  at  Adn- 
anople,  affording  much  merriment  to  my 
Turkish  friends.  The  couple  concerned 
were  very  fond  of  each  other,  and  lived  hap- 
pily together  except  at  times,  when  the  hus- 
band, under  the  influence  of  raki,  would  be 
come  quarrelsome.  The  wife,  a  fine  .spirited 
woman,  would  retort,  and  violent  disputes 
followed,  ending  in  attentate  divorce  and 
reconciliation.  This  happening  once  too 
often,  the  husband,  unable  to  repossess  him- 
self of  his  spouse,  had  recourse  to  an  old 
effendi  who  had  seen  better  days,  and  pro- 
mised £20  for  his  services.  The  effendi,  ac- 
cording to  custom,  went  to  the  bath,  dressed 
himself  in  a  new  suit  of  clothes,  and  being 
presented  at  the  appointed  time,  the  nekyah 
ceremony  was  gone  through.  The  old  gen- 
tleman  walked  into  the  harem,  seated  him- 
self upon  the  lady's  sofa,  and  began  to  en- 
joy, through  the  fumes  of  his  nargile,  the 
sweet  vision  of  his  unlooked-for  happiness  ; 
while  the  lady,  whose  dreams  did  not  exact- 
ly harmonize  with  his,  after  offering  the  ac- 
quaintance-cup of  coffee,  generally   shared 


by  the  wife  on  such  an  occasion,  preferred 
standing  at  a  respectful  distance.  The  old 
effendi,  however,  would  not  be  balked  in 
the  prospect  he  had  formed  for  the  re-enjoy- 
ment of  his  former  happier  days.  Why 
should  he  not  prolong  the  tenure  of  the  rights 
thus  unexpectedly  devolving  upon  him  ? 
Nothing  hindered  but  his  pledged  word  to 
renounce  them  ou  the  following  morning. 
His  conscience  easily  reconciled  to  this 
bread)  of  faith,  he  decided  upon  remaining 
master  of  the  situation,  leaving  the  poor  hus- 
band to  lament  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  his 
£20,  and  quite  regardless  of  the  useless  bur- 
den he  would  become  to  the  doubly-injured 
lady.  Such  events,  however,  are  not  of  fre- 
quent occurrence. 

It  is  customary  for  the  bridegroom  to  fur- 
nish the  wedding-dress  and  sundry  other  ac- 
cessories, as  well  as  to  promise  the  nekyah 
money  settled  upon  the  wife  in  case  of  di- 
vorce. These,  including  the  Kaftan  (outer 
wedding  dress)  are  sent  with  great  pomp 
eight  days  before  the  Duhun.  The  Hodja, 
priest  of  the  parish  in  winch  the  parents  of 
the  girl  reside,  is  requested  to  give  a  declara- 
tion that  the  young  lady  is  free  to  contract 
matrimony.  This,  taken  to  the  Kadi,  ob- 
tains the  marriage  license,  for  which  a  small 
fee  is  paid.  A  piece  of  red  silk  and  some 
sugar-plums  are  taken  by  the  bridegroom's 
mother  to  the  house  of  the  bride.  The  red 
silk,  which  later  on  is  made  into  an  under- 
garment, is  spread  on  this  occasion  on  the 
floor  ;  upon  it  the  young  lady  steps  to  kiss 
the  hand  of  her  future  mother-in-law  and 
receive  the  gift  with  her  blessing. 

Half  of  one  of  these  sugar-plums,  bitten  in 
two  by  her  pearly  teeth,  is  taken  to  the  bride- 
groom as  the  first  love  token  ;  literal  sweet- 
ness in  this  case  making  up  for  any  fault  in 
the  sentiment.  These  preliminaries  are  sealed 
by  the  formality  performed  by  the  Imam  in 
the  presence  of  witnesses  who  are  called  to 
the  door  of  the  Haremlik,  behind  which  the 
maiden  and  her  friends  stand.  Tiie  Imam 
asks  the  bride  if  she  consents  to  accept  the 
youth  proposed  (giving  his  name)  for  her 
husband.  The  question  is  repeated  three 
times,  the  bride  answering  each  time  in  the 
affirmative.  The  Hodja  has  to  declare  the 
amount  of  the  nekyah  money  promised,  and 
calls  three  times  upon  the  bystanders  to  bear 
witness  before  God  to  the  contract  ;  a  short 
prayer  follows,  and  the  ceremony  is  conclud- 
ed. The  felicitations  are  conveyed  in  the 
poetical  expression  of  "  .May  Allah  grant  har- 
mony between  their  two  stars!"  The  con 
tract,  religious  as  well  as  civil,  is  made  ver- 
bally, and  though  no  other  ceremony  of  im- 
portance follows  it,  the  bride  and  bridegroom 
do  not  see  each  other  till  the  Duhun,  or  wed- 
ding festivities,  have  been  held.  The  length 
of  this  period  may  be  from  a  few  weeks  to  a 
few  years,  and  is  a  blank  which  potential 
love  is  at  liberty  to  fill  with  fantastic  pictures 
of  coming  happiness.  No  sweet  messages, 
letters,  or  communications  of  any  kind  are  al- 
lowed during  the  interval  to  pave  the  way 
towards  the  future  binding  together  of  two 
beings  whose  common  lot  is  cast,  without 
regard  to  personal  sympathy,  into  the  vague 
abyss  of  destiny.  Ivismet,  the  supreme  ruler 
of  all  Turkish  events,  is  left  to  decide  the  de- 
gree of  misery  or  indifference  that  marriage 
contracted  under  such  unfavorable  circum- 
stances may  bring,  instead  of  the  looked-for 
happiness. 

Romance,  ending  in  marriage,  however,  is 
not  unknown  between  Turkish  youths  and 
maidens,  and  the  parents  seldom  refuse  their 
consent  in  such  cases.  Young  love,  even 
Turkish  love,  is  sometimes  strong  enough  to 
break  through  the  barriers  of  harem  restraint 
and  reach  its  object  in  spite  of  every  obstacle 
with  which  the  organization  of  centuries  of 
jealous  guardianship  has  surrounded  Turk- 
ish women. 

At  Audrianople,  a  young  beauty  of  sixteen 
suddenly  began  to  pine  and  sicken.  The 
color  faded  from  her  cheeks,  she  became 


thoughtful,  sad,  and  listless  ;  a  low  fever  set 
in,  greatly  alarming  the  anxious  parents,  who 
were  at  a  loss  to  divine  the  cause.  As  usual, 
all  the  learned  Ilodjas  were  resorted  to,  but 
their  Muskas,  prayers,  and  blessings  failed  to 
revive  the  sinking  health  and  spirits  of  the 
maiden.  One  day  I  happened  to  visit  this 
family  ;  the  girl  was  seated  at  the  corner 
window,  overlooking  the  street,  dreamily  gaz- 
ing out  from  behind  the  lattice.  Her  little 
brother  was  playing  by  her  side,  while  the 
mother  was  describing  to  me  the  symp- 
toms of  her  daughter's  indisposition.  The 
little  fellow  suddenly  jumped  up,  saying, 
"  Ishde  Ali  Bey.  I  want  to  go  to  him!" 
His  sister  started  up,  her  cheeks  suffused 
with  blushes,  and  left  the  room  in  confusion. 
Both  the  mother  and  I  noticed  the  incident, 
though  no  remark  was  made  about  it  at  the 
time  by  either  of  us  ;  but  I  was  at  no  loss 
then  to  understand  the  reason  of  the  girl's 
failing  health  and  depression  of  spirits.  A 
short  time  after  I  heard  of  her  engagement  to 
this  young  man,  whom  it  appears  she  had 
loved  as  a  child.  This  love  later  on  becom- 
ing a  hidden  passion  was  shared  by  the  youth 
and  stealthily  interpreted  between  them  by 
the  language  of  flowers,  fruits,  and  scents, 
the  mediums  generally  resorted  to  by  Turks 
in  such  cases.  The  lover,  handsome  and  in- 
telligent, was  a  mere  Kyatih,  who  deemed  his 
limited  means  an  obstacle  to  his  aspiring  to 
the  hand  of  one  of  the  wealthiest  young  ha- 
noums  of  the  town.  I  was  present  at  the 
marriage  festivities  of  this  lovely  creature, 
and  saw  her  a  year  later  a  blooming  wife  and 
mother. 

The  trousseau  comprises  bedding,  some- 
times to  the  amount  of  fifty  sets,  each  com- 
posed of  two  mattresses,  two  quilted  cover- 
lets, and  three  cotton  bolsters  ;  kitchen  uten- 
sils, all  of  copper,  very  numerous,  consisting 
of  two  or  three  immense  cauldrons,  several 
large  jugs  and  pans,  and  a  great  number  of 
dinner-trays,  with  the  services  belonging  to 
them  ;  among  the  wealthy  one  of  these  would 
be  of  silver.  It  also  comprises  furniture  for 
two  rooms  of  some  rich  material  embroidered 
with  gold,  a  handsome  mangal  (brazier),  cur- 
tains, and  a  few  carpets  and  rugs,  besides  the 
house  linen.  The  wardrobe  contains  several 
expensive  fur  jackets,  a  shawl  or  two,  some 
j\rulj<:s,  and  a  number  of  suits  of  apparel, 
consisting  of  under-gowns  and  jackets.  The 
(jcUnlik,  or  wedding-dress,  ranging^  in  value 
from  sixty  to  hundreds  of  pounds,  is  em- 
broidered with  gold  and  pearls.  The  rest  are 
less  rich  in  material,  and  are  of  silk  and 
woollen  stuffs,  and  less  expensive  materials 
down  to  print  gal'/lik*.  The  other  articles 
are  chemises,  a  few  pairs  of  stockings,  boots, 
and  slippers,  some  dozens  of  worked  hand- 
kerchiefs, head-ties,  and  yashmaks,  together 
with  a  number  of  European  odds  and  ends, 
such  as  petticoats,  gloves,  and  parasols. 

The  ])nli uii,  like  the  circumcision  cere- 
mony, lasts  a  whole  week,  occasioning  great 
expense  to  the  parents,  who,  however,  can- 
not possibly  avoid  it,  and  often  incur  debts 
for  its  celebration  that  hang  heavily  upon 
them  through  life. 

The  customs  connected  with  weddings 
differ  according  to  the  district  in  which  they 
take  place.  In  Macedonia  I  was  highly 
amused  to  see  the  manner  in  which  the  bride 
was  introduced  into  her  new  home.  As  soon 
as  her  feet  had  crossed  the  threshold,  a  halter 
was  thrown  round  her  neck  and  she  was. 
dragged  in  by  her  husband,  to  teach  her  an 
early  lesson  of  gentle  four-footed  obedience  ; 
on  passing  the  first  hearth-stone  her  head  was 
brought  into  violent  contact  with  the  wall,  as 
a  warning  of  the  chastisement  she  may  ex- 
pect in  case  of  misconduct. 

Her  face  is  a  mask  of  gold-dust  and  gum 
worked  on  the  cheeks,  forehead,  and  chin 
with  spangles.  The  eyebrows  are  thickly 
painted  and  meet  over  the  nose,  and  the  teeth 
are  blackened.  This  hideous  disguisement  is 
worn  till  evening,  when  the  bridegroom,  on 
his  first  visit  to  the  bride,  pours  out  the  wa- 


48 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


ter  with  which  she  washes  it  away  in  order 
to  give  the  nuptial  kiss. 

The  wedding  festivities  begin  on  the  Mon- 
day. A  number  of  friends  and  relatives  col- 
lect at  the  home  of  the  bride  to  superintend 
the  final  arrangement  and  expedition  of  the 
trousseau  to  the  bridegroom's  house.  This 
luggage  is  carried  by  Mammals,  who,  on  ar 
rival  at  the  house,  are  entitled  beside  their 
.fee  to  'a  dwere,  or  marked  handkerchief 
offered  by  the  mother.  They  are  preceded 
on  their  march  by  the  Koulawuz,  who  deliv- 
ers their  burdens  into  the  charge  of  the 
mother-in-law  or  some  responsible  person. 
Shortly  afterwards,  the  bride's  party  follows, 
who  after  partaking  of  coffee  and  bonbons 
are  shown  b}'  the  luuioum  into  the  apartments 
destined  for  the  occupation  of  the  bride. 

It  is  customary  for  Turkish  youths  who 
have  homes  to  take  their  wives  to  them  on 
marrying.  Should  the  Konak  be  too  small 
to  accommodate  all  the  married  sons,  extra 
wings  are  added  to  it.  The  guests,  left  to 
themselves,  at  once  set  to  work  to  decorate 
the  bridal  chamber,  some  stretching  strings 
along  the  walls  on  which  to  hang  the  larger 
articles  of  dress,  such  as  furred  and  embroid- 
ered jackets,  feridjei,  cloaks,  and  intaris,  all 
of  bright  colors,  and  richly  worked  and 
trimmed.  The  shawls,  prayer  carpet,  and 
bridal  boghcha,  all  objects  of  value,  occupy 
the  centre  of  these  rows,  which  are  succes- 
sively surmounted  by  others,  consisting  of  the 
linen,  kerchiefs,  towels,  head  scarves,  and 
other  adjuncts  of  the  toilet,  all  arranged  with 
great  taste.  Along  the  top  of  the  walls  runs 
a  garland  of  crape  flowers.  The  bride's  cor- 
ner is  richly  decorated  with  these  and  other 
artificial  flowers,  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
bower.  This  promiscuous  exhibition  of  silk 
gauze  and  various  stuffs,  intermingled  with 
embroidery  in  variegated  silks,  gold,  and  sil- 
ver, is  most  striking  in  effect,  and  forms,  with 
the  bridal  bower,  a  sight  peculiarly  Oriental 
and  gorgeous.  The  alcove  is  reserved  for 
the  display  of  jewels  and  other  precious  ob- 
jects placed  under  glass  shades. 

When  this  adornment  (which  takes  up 
the  whole  night)  is  completed,  the  party  goes 
to  the  next  room  and  arranges  the  furniture 
sent  for  it,  thence  proceeding  to  the  hall  and 
unpacking  the  bedding,  which,  placed  against 
the  walls  upon  the  empty  cases,  forms  a 
huge  mass  of  colored  strata  of  silk,  embroid- 
ery, and  bright  cotton  print.  One  or  two 
little  stools  of  walnut  wood,  inlaid  with 
mother-of-pearl,  support  the  candelabra,  and 
the  hochaf  tray  with  its  prettily  cut  crystal 
bowl  and  ivory  spoons  would  be  placed  in 
front,  together  with  the  brooms,  dustpan  of 
walnut  wood  inlaid  with  silver,  both  patterns 
of  the  same  materials,  and  the  kitchen  uten- 
sils, mangals,  and  all  other  belongings  of  the 
bride. 

On  Tuesday  the  bride  is  taken  to  the  bath 
with  great  ceremony,  the  expenses  on  this 
occasion  being  defrayed  by  the  bridegroom. 
Before  leaving  the  bath  the  bride  is  led  three 
times  round  the  centre  platform,  kisses  hands 
all  round,  and  goes  out  to  be  dressed.  The 
clothes  she  wears  on  this  occasion  must  not 
belong  to  her. 

On  Wednesday,  the  bridegroom's  party  of 
lady  friends  go  in  a  body  to  the  home  of  the 
bride,  preceded  by  the  Koulawuz,  who  an- 
nounces their  arrival  with  an  air  of  great  im- 
portance. Violent  confusion  ensues ;  the 
mother,  followed  by  her  friends,  descends 
the  staircase.  They  form  a  double  row,  each 
couple  conducting  a  visitor  between  them, 
beginning  with  the  bridegroom's  mother,  and 
proceed  upstairs  into  apartments  specially 
Teserved  for  the  friends  of  the  bridegroom, 
who  do  not  mix  with  the  bride's  party  on 
this  occasion.  When  their  veils  and  cloaks 
have  been  removed  they  seat  themselves 
round  the  room  and  partake  of  bitter  coffee 
and  cigarettes,  followed  half  an  hour  later  by 
sweet  coffee.  The  bride  is  led  into  the  room 
by  two  hanoums  who  have  only  been  mar- 
ried once,  and  kisses  the  hands  of  all  present, 


beginning  with  her  future  mother-in-law, 
and  terminating  with  the  youngest  child  in 
the  room.  She  is  then  seated  on  a  chair  near 
her  Kayn  Valide,  who  is  allowed  on  this  oc- 
casion to  take  her  by  her  side  for  a  few  min- 
utes only,  during  which  masticated  sugar  is 
exchanged  between  them  as  a  token  of  fu- 
ture harmony.  The  bride  is  then  taken  away, 
excused  by  some  insipid  remarks  on  the  ex- 
piring rights  of  maternal  possession  over  her. 

The  dancing  girls  and  musicians  are  now 
called  in  aud  perform  before  the  company, 
receiving  money  from  each  person  as  they 
leave  the  room  in  order  to  entertain  the  other 
party  of  guests.  When  the  bridegroom's 
friends  are  about  to  leave  they  throw  small 
coins  over  the  head  of  the  bride,  who  is  led 
down  to  the  door  for  the  purpose.  The 
scramble  that  ensues  among  the  hawkers  of 
sweets,  fruits,  etc.,  assembled  in  the  court, 
the  children,  the  beggars,  and  innumerable 
parasites  crowding  houses  during  the  cele- 
bration of  a  wedding,  is  beyond  description. 

Before  departure  an  invitation  is  given  for 
the  evening  to  take  part  in  the  Kena,  an  en- 
tertainment more  especially  designed  for  the 
bride  and  her  maiden  friends.  When  the 
company  is  assembled,  tapers  are  handed  to 
each,  and  a  procession  formed,  headed  by 
the  bride,  and  accompanied  by  the  dancing 
girls  and  music.  They  descend  the  staircase 
into  the  garden,  and  wind  among  the  flower- 
beds and  groves  of  trees.  The  lights,  the 
gay  dresses,  flashing  jewels,  and  floating  hair 
of  the  girls,  the  bright  castanets,  and  the 
wild  songs  and  weird  music  of  the  accom  • 
panyists,  combine  to  form  a  glimpse  of  fairy- 
land, or  a  dream  of  "  The  Thousand  and 
One  Nights." 

The  ceremony  of  the  Kena  consists  in  the 
application  of  the  henna  mixture,  which  is 
prepared  towards  morning.  The  bride,  after 
being  divested  of  her  wedding  finery,  enters 
the  presence  of  her  mother-in-law,  shading 
her  eyes  with  her  left  arm,  while  she  seats 
herself  in  the  middle  of  the  room.  A  silk 
bath  scarf  is  thrown  over  her  outstretched 
right  hand,  and  is  then  thickly  plastered  over 
with  the  henna,  upon  which  her  mother-in- 
law  sticks  a  gold  coin,  her  example  being 
followed  by  the  rest  of  her  company.  This 
hand  placed  in  a  silk  bag  relieves  the  other  in 
covering  her  eyes,  and  the  left  hand  is  in  its 
turn  extended  and  gifted  in  like  manner  by 
the  bride's  mother  and  her  friends  ;  the  feet 
are  also  stained  with  the  henna.  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  last  dance,  called  the  Sakusvm, 
performed  by  the  Ghingis,  accompanied  by  a 
song  and  gestures  of  the  most  unrestrained 
and  immodest  nature,  terminating  in  these 
dancers  taking  extraordinary  positions  before 
each  guest,  sometimes  even  sitting  on  their 
knees  to  receive  their  reward,  which  consists 
of  a  small  gold  coin,  damped  in  the  mouth, 
and  deposited  on  their  unblushing  foreheads. 
In  these  proceedings,  the  modesty  and  inno- 
cence of  the  young  girls  present  is  never 
thought  about. 

The  bride  reposes  long  enough  for  the 
henna  to  impart  its  crimson  dye,  but  not  to 
turn  black,  which  would  be  considered  a  bad 
augury. 

The  only  touching  scene  in  the  whole 
course  of  the  wedding  ceremonies,  the  gird- 
ing of  the  bride  by  her  father,  takes  place  in 
the  presence  of  her  mother  and  sisters  just 
before  she  leaves  the  home  of  her  childhood. 
The  father  enters  the  room  appearing  deeply 
affected,  and  sometimes  even  joining  his 
tears  to  the  weeping  of  his  wife  and  daugh- 
ters. The  bride,  also  weeping,  falls  at  his 
feet,  kisses  them,  and  kisses  his  hands,  while 
he  presses  her  to  his  breast  and  girds  her 
with  the  bridal  girdle,  giving  at  the  same 
time  some  good  advice  and  his  blessing. 

In  some  district  towns  the  bridegroom's 
male  friends  arrive  at  dawn  with  torches  to 
take  away  the  bride.  She  is  not,  however, 
seen  by  her  husband  until  evening,  when  he 
is  taken  to  the  mosque,  and  accompanied  to 
the  door  of  his  dwelling  by  the  Imam.    A 


short  prayer  is  offered,  the  company  joining 
in  the  refrain  of  Amin,  Amin,  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  which  the  happy  man  is  pushed  into 
the  house,  a  shower  of"  blows  falling  on  his 
back  ;  they  then  partake  of  sherbet  stand 
ing,  and  disperse.  The  bridegroom  proceed- 
ing upstairs  comes  upon  a  bowl  of  water, 
which  he  upsets  with  his  foot,  scattering  the 
contents  in  all  directions.  The  Koulavouz 
meets  and  conducts  him  to  the  nuptial  apart- 
ment, where  the  bride,  shy  and  trembling, 
awaits  the  introduction  of  the  complete  stran- 
ger, in  whose  hands  her  destiny  for  good  or 
for  evil  is  now  placed. 

She  rises  as  he  enters  and  kisses  his  hand  ; 
her  bridal  veil  removed  by  the  Koulavouz  is 
spread  on  the  floor  and  knelt  on  by  the 
bridegroom,  who  offers  a  solemn  prayer,  the 
bride  all  the  time  standing  on  its  edge  behind 
him.  The  couple  then  sit  side  by  side  ;  the 
old  lady  approaching  their  heads  together 
while  she  shows  them  the  reflection  of  their 
united  images  in  a  mirror,  and  expresses  her 
wishes  for  the  continuation  of  their  present 
harmonious  union. 

Masticated  sugar  is  exchanged  between 
them  as  a  token  of  the  sweetness  that  must 
henceforth  flow  from  their  lips.  Coffee  fol- 
lows, after  which  the  Koulavouz  retires  till 
her  services  are  again  required  for  bringing 
in  the  supper,  which  consists  of  sweets  and 
eggs,  meat  being  excluded  on  the  ground  that 
to  indulge  in  it  on  so  solemn  an  occasion 
would  lead  to  future  bickerings  between 
them. 

The  supper  hour  depends  upon  the  shy- 
ness, obstinacy,  or  good-will  of  the  bride,  over 
whom  her  husband  can  have  no  control  until 
he  has  succeeded  in  making  her  respond  to 
his  questions.  Brides  are  recommended  by 
experienced  matrons  to  remain  mute  as  long 
as  possible,  and  the  husband  is  sometimes 
obliged  to  resort  to  a  stratagem  in  order  to 
accomplish  this.  The  anxiously  k>oked-for 
speech  is  at  once  echoed  by  the  relieved  hus- 
band by  a  knock  on  the  wall,  which  is  the 
signal  for  supper.  This  partaken  of,  the 
bride  is  divested  of  her  finery  and  the  paint 
and  flowers  washed  off  by  the  Koulavouz, 
and  left  to  repose  after  the  fatigue  and  ex- 
citement of  five  successive  days  of  festivity, 
still  to  be  extended  for  two  days  longer.  On 
the  morrow  she  is  again  decked  in  her  wed- 
ding apparel  to  receive  the  crowd  of  han- 
oums, invited  and  uninvited,  that  flock  to  the 
house  to  gaze  upon  her. 

I  have  said  nothing  about  the  bakhshish,  or 
presents,  for  the  reason  that  the  givers  and 
receivers  are  legion  ;  nor  of  the  kind  of 
amusement  resorted  to  during  these  days, 
since  they  consist  principally  in  feasting, 
drinking  sherbet,  smoking,  and  chatting,  en- 
livened only  by  the  monotonous  music  and 
the  spectacle  of  dancing  girls.  This  part 
of  the  entertainment  is  so  disgusting  to  be- 
hold, and  so  repulsive  to  describe,  that  the 
less  I  say  about  them  the  better  ;  their  im- 
modesty can  only  be  matched  by  the  obscene 
conversations  held  by  the  numerous  parasites 
specially  introduced  for  the  amusement  of 
the  company. 

Entertainments  of  a  similar  nature  take 
place  at  the  same  time  in  the  Selamliks  of 
both  houses. 

At  Constantinople  the  bride  is  taken  on  the 
Thursday  morning  from  the  paternal  roof, 
and  conveyed  in  a  carriage  to  her  new  home, 
followed  by  a  train  of  other  carriages,  pre- 
ceded by  music  and  surrounded  by  buffoons, 
performing  absurd  mummeries  for  the  amuse- 
ment of  the  party,  besides  a  numerous  com- 
pany of  unruly  youths,  some  mounted  and 
others  on  foot,  most  of  whom  get  intoxicated 
and  noisy  on  the  occasion.  The  bride  is  re- 
ceived by  her  husband  at  the  door  ;  he  offers 
his  arm  and  conducts  her  upstairs  through 
the  crowd  of  hanoums,  who  are  not  very 
careful  about  hiding  their  faces,  on  the  plea 
that  the  bridegroom  being  otherwise  occu- 
pied will  not  look  at  them.  He  leads  his 
wife  to  the  bower  prepared  for  her,  but  be« 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


49 


fere  taking  her  seat  a  scuffle  ensues  between 
them  for  precedence,  each  trying  to  step 
upon  the  foot  of  the  oilier,  the  successful 
person  being  supposed  to  acquire  the  right  of 
future  supremacy. 

A  Turkish  wedding,  as  shown  by  this  de- 
scription, in  its  frivolous  forms  and  the  ab- 
sence of  the  sanctity  of  a  religious  ordinance, 
fails  to  impress  one  with  the  solemnity  of 
The  Christian  rite.  The  whole  ceremony  con- 
tains many  ridiculous  superstitious  and 
much  that  is  worse  than  absurd. 

Polygamy  was  no  invention  of  Moham- 
med's :  he  found  it  already  firmly  rooted  in 
Arabia.  To  abolish  it  was  an  idea  that  could 
never  have  entered  his  mind.  We  must  only 
be  grateful  to  him  for  having  to  some  extent 
set  bounds  to  its  evils.  Butlhose  bounds  are 
thoroughly  inadequate.  Four  wives  and 
perfect  facility  of  divorce  are  bad  enough, 
without  reckoning  the  permission  to  keep  as 
many  concubines  as  a  man  pleases.  But  the 
wretched  necessities  of  polygamy  and  divorce 
are  wrapped  up  with  the  harem  system.  The 
latter  absolutely  demands  the  former  ;  and 
though  cases  of  true  love  do  exist  in  Turkey 
where  a  man  resigns  the  so-called  pleasures 
of  polygamy  and  of  possessing  odalisks  ;  yet 
it  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  until  the 
harem  system,  and  with  it  polygamy,  are 
finally  abolished,  the  condition  of  Moham- 
medan women  can  never  be  anything  but  de- 
graded. 

Interested  marriages  are  often  contracted 
by  young  Turks,  to  whom  ambition  or  grati- 
tude recommends  as  partners  some  faded 
court  beauties  called  Semilis,  or  the  ugly  and 
deformed  daughter  of  the  patron  to  whom 
they  owe  their  position  and  upon  whom  they 
depend  for  future  promotion.  The  number 
of  vizirs  and  pashas  that  have  attained  such 
high  rank  solely  through  the  interest  and  in- 
fluence of  their  wives  is  very  great  ;  a  fact 
which,  if  better  known  by  Europeans,  would 
disabuse  them  of  the  idea  that  a  Turkish  wife 
of  every  rank  is  the  slave  of  her  husband.  I 
have  seen  innumerable  cases  denoting  the 
reverse.  The  fraternity  of  meek,  submis- 
sive, and  hen-pecked  husbands  is,  I  suppose, 
like  the  gypsies,  to  be  found  all  over  the 
world.  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid,  on  being  in- 
formed that  his  favorite  wife  had  concealed 
one  of  her  lovers  in  a  cupboard,  had  a  scene 
with  her,  during  which  he  received  a  sound 
box  on  the  ear.  At  last  the  tyranny  of  this 
much- loved  beauty  passed  all  endurance,  and 
the  Sultan  decided  upon  putting  her  away 
and  sending  her  into  exile.  His  Grand  Vizir 
Reshid  Pasha,  was  charged  with  the  task  of 
visiting  the  Sultana  and  enforcing  upon  her 
the  Imperial  order.  She  received  him,  heard 
her  fate  unmoved,  and,  still  confident  in 
the  supreme  power  she  possessed  over  her 
lord  and  master,  quietly  collared  his  Grand 
Vizir  and  walked  him  out  of  the  room. 

O  .  .  .  .  Pasha,  in  his  young  days,  con- 
tracted a  marriage  of  this  kind  with  the 
daughter  of  an  influential  minister.  She  was 
humpbacked,  with  a  face  so  distorted  as  to 
render  a  disinterested  marriage  hopeless.  I 
made  her  acquaintance  at  Uskup,  as  she 
passed  through  on  her  way  to  the  interior  of 
Albania,  where  her  husband  had  been  ap- 
pointed Governor-General.  She  told  me  that 
she  had  made  a  great  sacrifice  in  leaving  her 
beautiful  YaMi  on  the  Bosphorus  and  under- 
taking a  journey  the  perils  and  hardships  of 
which  were  nearly  killing  her,  but  that  she 
thought  it  her  duty  to  be  near  her  husband 
lest  he,  yielding  to  the  temptation  occasioned 
by   the   absence  of  her  surveillance,  should 


that  they  had  been  carefully  smuggled  by 
their  owner  into  a  house  which  he  visited 
under  the  pretext  of  the  long  k'ptil,  or  night 
watches,  he  had  to  make  in  the  town  in  order 
to  see  that  all  was  right  among  his  unruly 
Arnaouts.  It  is  true  the  story  cuts  two 
ways:  it  not  only  shows  that  the  husband 
dared  not  be  openly  unfaithful  to  his  wife, 
but  also  that  her  suspicious  surveillance  was 
entirely  ineffectual. 


CHUISTIAN 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

WEDDINGS — GREEK, 
AND   ARMENIAN. 


BULGARIAN, 


Greek  Weddings.  —  The  Arravbn  —  Dowry  —  The 
Bridegroom's  Call  of  Ceremony — The  Wedding  Fes- 
tivities Monday:  the  Sifting  of  the  Grain — Wed- 
nesday :  the  Making  of  the  Wedding  Cakes— Friday  : 
Bridal  Presents— Saturday  :  Invitations ;  Dressing  of 
the  Bride's  Hair  and  Shaving  of  the  Bridegroom — Sun- 
day :  the  Wedding  ;  Kissing  of  the  Bridegroom— The 
Second  Arravbn— Duties  of  Best  Man— At  the  Church 
—Ceremonies  on  re-entering  the  House— The  final 
Dance— Monday :  Feeding  of  the  Bride— Offering  at 
the  Well — Separation  and  Divorce  among  the  Greeks. 

Bulgarian  Weddings.— Betrothal— Never  Broken- 
Preparatory  Ceremonies— The  Wedding— Procession 
to-the  Cellar — Christian  Marriage  Service  mixed  with 
Dionysian  Rites— Offering  to  the  Water  Deities — Pun- 
islunent  of  Unchastity— Turkish  Raids  upon  Brides- 
Bulgarian  Trousseau — Marriage  among  the  Wealthy 
Bulgarians  of  the  Towns — Ladies  from  Abroad. 

Armenian  Weddings.—  The  Offer— Wedding  Cere- 
monies—Friday :  the  Bath— Saturday  :  the  Maidens' 
Feast — Sunday  :  Feast  of  Young  Men  and  Girls— Cag- 
ing of  the  Bride— The  Bridegroom's  Toilette— The 
Barber- Procession  to  the  Bride— "  Half-Service  " — 
To  tho  Church— Multiple  Marriage— Rite— Return  to 
the  House— Scramble  for  Stockings— The  Virgin 
Guard— Wednesday  :  Conclusion  of  Marriage— Eti- 
quette of  Conversation. 

Greek  weddings  vary  in  form  and  custom 
according  to  the  country  in  which  they  are 
celebrated  and  to  the  degree  of  modification 
ancient  customs  have  experienced  under  the 
influence  of  modern  ideas.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  forms  is  that  practised  at  Vodena 
(Edessa,  the  ancient  capital  of  Macedonia), 
as  comprising  in  its  forms  many  of  the  cus- 
toms and  usages  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  The 
preliminary  ceremony  is  the  appajiuv,  ortroth, 
which,  though  it  is  not  a  religious  rite,  is 
considered  binding,  and  cannot  lightly  be  set 
aside.  An  incident  that  happened  at  Brous- 
sa  will  show  how  strong  is  the  bond  of  this 
mere  verbal  engagement.  A  young  Greek 
girl,  who  had  been  talked  about  in  the  town, 
was  portioned  by  her  influential  protector, 
and  engaged  to  a  young  peasant  who  was 
unacquainted  with  her  and  ignorant  of  her 
antecedents  and  was  induced  to  pledge  his 
word  to  marry  her.  All  had  been  prepared 
for  the  ceremony.  The  young  man  was  hur- 
ried to  church,  where  he  and  his  friends  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  bride.  Her  ap- 
pearance did  not  satisfy  the  bridegroom,  and 
he  refused  to  fulfil  his  promise.  The  officiat- 
ing priest  insisted  on  the  completion  of  the 
ceremony,  in  riaiht  of  the  bridegroom's 
pledged  word.  A  scuffle  ensued,  and  the 
active  peasant,  helped  by  his  friends,  effect- 
ed his  escape  from  the  church,  leaving  his 
fez  in  the  hands  of  one  of  his  antagonists  ; 
and,  later  on,  obtained  his  release  by  legal 
proceedings. 

Contrary  to  European  custom,  the  young 
men  are  sought  in  marriage  by  the  parents  of 
the  girl,  or  through  the  intermediary,  in  im- 
itation of  their  ancestors,  who  employed  such 
persons  in  this  service. 

The  usual  age  for  the  men  is  twenty-five, 
and  for  the  girls  eighteen.  The  dowry  is 
settled  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  who 
bear  testimony  to  the  right  of  inheritance  j 
of  the  children,  and  the  arravuii  is  considered 
concluded  when  the  bridegroom  declares 
misrht  rob  her  of  her  himself  satisfied  with  the  amount  of  the  pro- 
mised dowry.  This  belongs  unconditionally 
to  the  husband,  except  in  case  of  divorce, 
when  it  is  returned,  in  accordance  with  a  law 
identical  with  that  of  the  ancient  Athenians. 
The  modern  Greeks  appear  to  attach  as 
much  importance  to  the  dowry  as  the  an- 
cient, although  it  is  no  longer  meant  to  de- 
note the  difference  between  the  ywi]  and  the 
naXXaidf,  which  was  marked    by  the  wife 


form  new   ties   that 

rights.      "  Do    you    Franks,"    she    asked, 

"  trust  your  husbands  out  of  your  sight  ?" 

A  week  after  her  departure,  another  fussy 
arrival  of  harems  put  Uskup  into  commotion. 
On  my  inquiring  whose  they  were,  I  was  told 
that  they  were  the  beautiful  Circassian  Oda- 
lisks of  O  .  .  .  .  Pasha,  who  were  following 
the  steps  of  his  wife,  entirely  unknown  to 
her.     On  arriving  at  their  destination  I  learnt 


!  bringing   a    dowry   whilst    the    concubine 
'  brought  none. 

The  troumau  is  being  prepared  long  before 
j  it  is  required  by  the  careful  parents,  who  by 
.  degrees  liny  all  the  materials  for  it,  the  girl 
i  herself  having  no  other  concern  than  to  give 
her  help  towards  making  up  the  various  arti- 
cles of  dress. 

No  Greek  of  the  present  day  would  refuse 
to  co-operate  with  his  father  in  portioning' 
his  sisters.     He  will  renounce  to  himself  the 
privilege  of  taking  a  wife  while  any  of  his 
sisters  remain  unmarried. 

As  soon  as  the  engagement  is  made  public, 
the  avvdede/ievoi;,  in  company  with  his  rela- 
tives and  friends,  pays  his  respects  to  the 
house  of  his  future  wife,  who  presents  her- 
self in  an  extremely  bashful  attitude,  her 
eyes  cast  down,  her  hands  crossed  on  her 
breast,  and  her  mien  on  the  whole  that  of 
one  who  tries  to  conceal  pride  and  joy  under 
a  stiff  and  conceited  exterior.*  Receiving 
the  felicitations  of  those  present,  she  bows 
three  times,  and  then  retires.  Gilt  fiaaihuioc 
(basil)  is  offered  as  a  memento  of  the  event, 
a  relic  of  the  ancients,  who  used  herbs  and 
flowers  in  connection  with  the  affairs  of  mar- 
riage. As  the  company  retire,  the  uppaflu- 
viaoTini)  (bride),  standing  at  the  head  of  the 
staircase,  kisses  the  hands  of  her  future  hus- 
band and  his  friends,  receiving  in  return  gifts 
of  gold  coins.  This  custom  of  kissing  hands 
on  the  part  of  the  woman  is  a  humiliating, 
but  in  the  East  a  common,  mark  of  submis- 
sion, which  our  western  ideas  have  happily 
reversed. 

It  is  customary  for  the  bridegroom  to  send 
occasional  presents  to  the  bride  in  the  inter- 
val— of  varying  length — between  the  betrothal 
and  the  wedding.  The  document  contain- 
ing the  conditions  of  the  appajiuv  is  deliver- 
ed to  the  bridegroom  on  the  Sunday  previous 
to  the  wedding,  and  its  receipt  is  acknowl- 
edged by  a  present  of  bonbons,  henna,  hair- 
dye,  rouge,  and  soap,  together  with  a  double 
flask  containing  wine. 

On  Monday,  the  bride  and  her  maiden 
friends  collect,  and,  as  in  olden  time,  sift  the 
grain,  which,  on  its  return  from  the  mill, 
will  be  converted  by  them  into  bridal  cakes. 
Very  bright  are  the  faces  and  very  merry  the 
voices  of  these  young  maidens  thus  busily 
employed  ;  the  room  resounds  with  their  gay 
laughter  and  joyous  songs.  On  Wednesday 
the  gay  company  again  assembles,  increased 
in  number  by  friends  and  relatives,  who  ar- 
rive in  the  evening  to  assist  in  kneading  the 
dough.  The  trough  is  brought  in  and  filled 
with  a  snowy  pile  of  flour,  which  the  Mace- 
donian maidens  delight  in  converting  into 
savory  cakes  that  none  could  disdain  to  par- 
take of  ;  and,  especially  on  this  occasion, 
they  do  their  utmost  to  make  them  worthy 
emblems  of  what  their  ancestors  intended 
them  to  represent.  The  trough  is  occupied 
at  one  end  by  a  saddle  mounted  by  a  boy 
girded  with  a  sword  ;  on  the  other  by  a  girl, 
whose  tiny  hands  must  be  the  first  to  mix  the 
dough  and  lose  in  it  the  ring  and  coins. 
These  children  must  be  bright  and  happy, 
their  lives  unclouded  by  the  death  of  even  a 
distant  relation.  This  custom,  having  sur- 
vived the  march  of  centuries,  is  left  as  an  in- 
heritance to  the  Macedonians,  pointing  out 
to  the  yapflpbr  (bridegroom)  the  duties  of  the 
husband,  the  care  and  defence  of  his  home, 
— together  with  his  out-door  labors, — while 
it  signifies  to  the  Macedonian  maiden  that 
she  cannot  begin  too  early  to  attend  to  her 
household  affairs.  The  kneading  is  con- 
tinued by  more  experienced  hands,  and  the 
dough  left  till  the  morrow,  when  it  is  divided 
into  portions  and  handed  round  to  the  com- 
pany, who  all  hopefully  look  for  the  hidden 
ring,  for  which  the  lucky  finder  receives  a 
present  when  returning  it  to  the  bridegroom. 
The  paste,  re-collected,  is  mixed  with  the 
rest  of  the  dough,  from  which  the  propktuto 


*  Giving  rise  to  tho  Greek  saying  of  ' 
ad  vv/ujrij." 


Kajiapuvei 


50 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


(wedding  cake)  and  a  variety  of  other  cakes 
are  made.  On  Thursday  the  propkasto  is 
placed  over  a  bowl  of  water,  round  which, 
after  the  merry  mid-day  meal,  the  happy 
youths  and  maidens  dance  three  times,  sing- 
ing a  song  suited  to  the  occasion.  The  cake 
is  then  taken  up,  broken  in  pieces,  and,  to- 
gether with  figs  and  other  fruits,  thrown  over 
the  heads  of  the  couple  ;  the  children, 
scrambling  for  these,  are  covered  with  a 
blanket,  another  surviving  custom  of  ancient 
Greece,  figs  and  cakes  denoting  plenty,  ren- 
dered doubly  significant  by  the  scrambling 
children  covered  with  the  blanket,  emblem- 
atic of  the  future  f ruitfulness  of  the  union 
itself. 

Friday  is  reserved  for  the  interchange  of 
presents  between  the  bride  and  bridegroom, 
each  awaiting  with  loving  curiosity  the  ex- 
pected gift  of  the  other  ;  the  right  of  the 
first  surprise  belongs  to  the  bride,  whose  beat- 
ing heart  responds  to  the  distant  sounds  of 
music  that  herald  the  approach  of  the  bear- 
ers, who,  on  arrival,  after  having  been  thank- 
•  ed  and  refreshed,  are  intrusted  with  the  pres- 
ents destined  by  her  for  her  betrothed. 

On  Saturday,  invitations  are  issued,  a  for- 
mality extended  to  the  bride  and  bridegroom 
who  invite  one  another,  enlivened,  as  regards 
the  Koumbdros  and  Koumbdra*  with  bauds 
of  music,  which,  accompanying  the  invita- 
tion, lead  these  distinguished  visitors  back  to 
partake  of  the  festivities  of  the  day. 

In  the  evening  the  young  girls  for  the  last 
time  rally  round  their  comrade,  who,  on  the 
next  day,  is  to  leave  their  ranks  ;  and,  amid 
songs,  tears,  and  vows  of  unalterable  friend- 
ship, the  bride  abandons  her  youthful  locks, 
dyed  black,  into  the  hands  of  her  friends, 
who  dress  it  in  a  number  of  plaits  in  readi- 
ness for  the  next  day.  The  bridegroom  on 
his  part,  accompanied  by  his  friends  and 
cheered  by  the  sounds  of  lively  music,  sub- 
mits to  the  operation  of  shaving  ;  during 
which  operation  an  ode  to  the  razor  is  sung. 

Sunday,  looked  upon  as  the  most  propi- 
tious day,  is  fixed  for  the  celebration  of  the 
nuptials  ;  relatives  and  friends  collect  at  the 
abode  of  the  bridegroom,  kiss  the  happy 
man,  offering  him  felicitations  and  presents, 
and  conduct  him  to  the  home  of  the  bride, 
preceded  by  the  mother,  who,  on  leaving  the 
house,  empties  a  jar  of  water  at  the  gate,  and 
places  on  the  ground  a  belt,  over  which  her 
son  steps.  The  procession  stops  on  its  way 
to  take  the  koumbdros  and  the  koumbdra. 
On  arriving  at  their  destination,  the  for- 
mality of  exchanging  the  documents  contain- 
ing the  marriage  contracts  is  gone  through  ; 
these  are  presented  by  the  priest  to  the  re- 
spective parties,  the  dowry  in  cash  is  deliv- 
ered and  sent  to  the  bridegroom's  home. 
The  second  appaiiuv  then  takes  place  in  the 
following  manner,  and  in  accordance  with 
the  customs  of  tlis  ancient  Greeks.  The 
bride's  father,  or  nearest  of  kin,  presents 
himself  to  the  father,  or  nearest  of  kin,  of  the 
bridegroom,  and  offers  him  in  a  plate  some 
basil,  saying,  "Accept  the  engagement  of 
my  daughter  to  your  son,"  repeating  his  re- 
quest three  times  ;  this  ceremony  is  repeated 
on  the  bridegroom's  side,  and  followed  by 
the  presentation  of  a  glass  of  wine,  a  ring- 
shaped  cake,  and  a  spoon  to  the  bridegroom, 
who  partakes  of  the  wine,  and  drops  money 
into  the  glass,  in  acknowledgment  to  the 
bride  of  this  attention  ;  he  keeps  half  the 
cake,  giving  the  other  half  and  the  spoon 
into  the  charge  of  the  best  man,  who  feeds 
the  bride  with  it  next  morning.  This  mes- 
senger is  followed  by  another,  who  comes  to 
gird  the  bridegroom,  lifting  him  up  at  the 
same  time,  which  latter  task  is  made  as  diffi- 
cult as  possible  by  the  person  operated  upon, 
in  order  to  gain  more  consideration  More 
kisses  are  now  showered  upon  him  by  the 
relatives  of  the  bride,  after  which  he  is  left  in 
peace  for  a  time  ;  while  the  bride,  in  another 


*  The  best  man  and  head  bridesmaid,  whose  duty 
it  is  subsequen  tly  to  be  the  godfather  and  godmother 
of  the  children :  see  p,  40. 


room,  has  her  own  trials  to  go  through,  those 
trials  of  the  heart  which  belong  to  the  su- 
preme moment  when  the  maiden  is  about  to 
tear  herself  away  from  the  thousand  dear 
associations  of  home,  to  bid  farewell  to 
mother  and  brother  and  sister,  and  then  to 
enter  upon  new  duties,  new  ties  and  affec- 
tions. 

Like  all  things,  this:  soon  comes  to  an  end  ; 
it  is  the  best  man's  duty  to  conclude  it,  in  a 
strictly  unsentimental  manner,  by  putting 
on  the  bride's  boots,  a  gift  from  her  future 
husband.  The  bride,  veiled,  is  led  to  the 
church,  followed  by  the  rest  of  the  com- 
pany ;  bonbons  are  thrown  over  her  head  and 
water  spilt,  this  time  by  her  mother,  on  her 
march  as  she  passes  the  gate.  The  clear 
rhythm  of  a  triumphal  march,  accompanied 
by  a  bridal  chorus,  rules  the  slow  steps  of 
the  procession.  At  length  it  reaches  the 
church  ;  but  before  entering  it,  the  bride- 
groom's mother  asks  the  maiden  three  times, 
"  Bride,  hast  thou  the  shoes?"  The  couple 
then  enter  the  church,  holding  richly-deco- 
rated tapers,  and  proceed  to  the  altar,  where 
they  stand  side  by  side,  the  bride  on  the  left 
of  the  bridegroom.  The  priest,  after  reading 
part  of  the  ritual,  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross 
three  times  with  the  rings  over  the  heads  of 
their  respective  owners,  and  places  them  on 
their  hands,  saying,  'Appa/tawfere  6  6ov2.o<;  tov 
Ocov  (giving  the  name  of  theman),  rrjv  dovlrjv 
tov  deov  (the  name  of  the  woman),  in  the  name 
of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  three 
times  ;  leaving  to  the  koumbdros  the  duty  of 
exchanging  them.  This  terminates  the  third 
appaftuv,  and  the  marriage  service  begins  by 
the  priest  taking  the  wedding  wreaths,  plac- 
ing them  on  the  heads  of  the  bride  and  the 
bridegroom,  saying,  2  revere  6  iovXoc  tov  Ocov 
(giving  the  name  of  the  bridegroom),  r;> 
6oi'Ai)v  tov  Ocov  (the  name  of  the  woman),  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  etc.,  exchanging 
them  three  times.  A  glass  of  wine,  conse- 
crated by  the  priest,'is  offered  first  to  the 
bridegroom,  then  to  the  bride,  and  finally  to 
the  koumbdros  standing  behind  the  couple 
holding  the  wreaths.  The  priest  then  joins 
their  hands,  and  leads  them  three  times  round 
the  altar  ;  the  koumbdros  follows.  The  priest 
then  removes  the  bride-groom's  crown,  say- 
ing, MeyahvvBi]Ti  Nv/njiie  £>c  6  'kjipaa/j.  nal  ciXo- 
y'ifir\TL  d>c  6  'loauK  koX  jtXjjOvvOiiti  <5j  6  'laKu/3, 
and  that  of  the  bride,  saying,  Kal  ai>,  vvjityn, 
ficya\iC,t  <lf  17  Zafifid  Kal  cv§pdvhr}Ti  uq  tj  'Ycjicxa, 

K.    T.    X. 

The  ceremony  concluded,  the  koumbdros 
followed  by  the  relations,  kisses  the  bride 
and  bridegroom,  while  the  friends  in  offering 
their  congratulations  kiss  the  bridegroom  and 
the  wreath  of  the  bride.  On  returning,  the 
bride's  mother  welcomes  the  couple  by  plac- 
ing two  loaves  on  their  heads,  while  a  fresh 
shower  of  comfits  is  being  thrown  over 
them.  They  are  finally  conducted  to  the 
nuptial  chamber,  and  not  spared  the  ordeal 
of  sweetmeat-eatino-.  The  quince  of  the  an- 
cients is  replaced  by  sugar-plums. 

The  manner  in  which  this  is  given  and 
taken  is  curious  The  couple  bend  on  one 
knee,  placing  a  few  sugar-plums  on  the  other, 
which  each  strives  to  pick  up  with  the  lips, 
the  most  expeditious  having  the  right  first  to 
resume  liberty  of  posture.  I  have  not  been 
able  to  ascertain  if  this  particular  custom  is 
meant  to  predict  supreme  power  to  the  lord 
and  master  in  case  of  success,  or  his  subjec- 
tion to  petticoat  government  in  case  of  fail- 
ure. 

Towards  evening,  the  bride,  led  by  her 
father-in-law,  or  husband's  nearest  of  kin, 
proceeds  to  the  common  outside  the  town  or 
village,  and  opens  a  round  dance,  called  the 
surto.  This  dance  consists  of  a  quick  step, 
accompanied  by  music  and  chanting  ;  after 
its  performance  the  company  disperse,  the 
nearest  relations  leading  the  couple  home. 

On  Monday  morning  the  sleepers  are  wak- 
ened by  songs,  and  the  koumbdros,  invited  to 
partake  of  the  frugal  morning  meal,  feeds 
the  bride  with  the  remaining  half  of  the  cake, 


and  offers  her  the  spoon  with  which  she  eats 
the  first  mouthful  of  food  that  day. 

Breakfast  over,  the  bride  is  the  first  to 
leave  the  table,  and  goes  to  the  well  accom- 
panied by  her  friends,  round  which  she 
walks  three  times,  dropping  an  oboi  into  it 
from  her  lips,  a  sacred  attention  of  the  an- 
cients to  the  water  deities,  and  still  in  vogue 
among  the  moderns.  On  returning  home, 
the  bride,  desirous  of  making  her  husband 
share  in  the  benefits  of  her  dedication,  pours 
some  water  over  his  hands,  offering  at  the 
same  time  the  towel  on  which  to  dry  them, 
and  receiving  in  return  a  present  from  him. 

The  rejoicings  continue  throughout  the 
day,  the  bride's  father,  or  nearest  of  kin, 
having  this  time  the  right  of  opening  the 
dance  with  her. 

On  the  following  Friday  evening,  the 
young  matron  proudly  returns  in  company 
with  her  husband,  to  the  paternal  roof,  un- 
der which  they  remain  till  Saturday  night. 

Five  days  afterwards  the  bride  again  re- 
turns to  visit  her  mother,  taking  with  her  a 
bottle  of  raki,  which  she  exchanges,  taking 
a  fresh  supply  back  with  her.  The  Saturday 
following,  a  great  feast  is  given  by  the  bride's 
father,  inviting  all  the  relatives  to  a  cordial 
but  sober  meal.  In  the  evening  the  bride  is 
accompanied  home  by  the  party,  when  she  is 
left  in  peace  to  enter  upon  the  duties  of  her 
new  home. 

The  modern  Greeks  fully  deserve  the  praise 
they  receive  for  the  virtues  that  distinguish 
their  family  life,  the  harmony  of  which  is 
seldom  disturbed  by  the  troubles  and  dissen- 
sions caused  by  illegal  connections,  acts  of 
cruelty,  or  other  disorders.  Incompatibility 
of  feeling  in  unhappy  unions  is  wisely  settled 
by  separation.  In  more  serious  cases  a  di- 
vorce is  appealed  for  to  the  bishop  of  the  dio- 
cese, who  submits  it  to  the  council  of  the  de- 
mogerontia,  which,  according  to  the  merits 
of  the  case,  gives  a  decision,  or  refers  it  to 
the  Patriarch  at  Constantinople.  Thus  the 
scandal  of  an  open  court  of  law  is  avoided, 
and  the  offspring,  innocent  of  all  participa- 
tion in  the  crime  (should  there  be  any)  are 
not  made  to  suffer  from  its  unjust  stigma. 

MAHKIAGE  AMONG  THE  BULGARIANS. 

Fourteen  years  spent  among  Bulgarians 
afforded  me  the  opportunity  of  witnessing 
many  marriage  ceremonies,  which  were  very 
peculiar  and  interesting.  Especially  curious 
are  those  of  Upper  Macedonia,  as  presenting 
remarkable  traces  of  Dionysian  worship. 

The  matrimonial  negotiations  are  carried 
on  by  the  stroinichiisita  and  stroinitcote,  per- 
sons commissioned  by  the  parents  to  find  a 
suitable  parti  for  their  marriageable  daugh- 
ters ;  the  proposal,  among  the  peasants,  being 
addressed  by  the  man  to  the  parents  of  the 
girl,  who  accept  it  on  the  promise  of  a  sum 
of  money,  ranging  from  £50  to  £300,  ac- 
cording to  his  means.  The  sum  is  offered 
as  purchase-money  for  the  labor  of  the  hardy 
maiden,  whose  substantial  assistance  in  field 
and  other  work  to  the  paterfamilias  ceases  on 
the  marriage  day,  when  her  services  pass  to 
her  husband. 

Wednesday  or  Thursday  evenings  are  con- 
sidered most  propitious  for  the  betrothal, 
which  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  wit- 
nesses, and  consists  in  the  exchange  of  mar- 
riage contracts,  certifying  on  one  side  the 
promised  sum  of  money,  and  on  the  other 
stating  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  trous- 
seau the  bride  will  bring.  The  interchange 
of  contracts  is  followed  by  that  of  rings  be- 
tween the  affianced,  offered  to  them  by  the 
priest  who  asks  each  person  if  the  proposal 
of  the  other  is  accepted.  A  short  blessing 
follows,  and  this  simple  betrothal  is  con- 
cluded by  the  bride  kissing  the  hands  of  her 
affianced  husband  and  of  the  rest  of  the  com- 
pany. 

These  engagements,  never  known  to  be 
broken,  are  often  prolonged  for  years  by  sel- 
fish parents,  who  are  unwilling  to  part  with 
the  services  of  a  daughter  who  is  valued  as 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


51 


an  efficient  laborer.  This  unjust  delay  gives 
rise  to  clandestine  associations,  tolerated,  but 
not  acknowledged,  by  the  parents,  and  finally 
ending  in  matrimony.  Runaway  marriages 
are  also  of  frequent  occurrence  in  cases  when 
there  is  difficulty  about  the  payment  of  the 
portion.  The  young  couple  elope  on  an  ap- 
pointed day,  and  ride  to  the  nearest  church, 
where  they  are  at  once  united.  On  return- 
ing home  the  bride  usually  hides  herself  in 
the  house  of  some  relative,  until  friends  in- 
tervening obtain  her  father's  forgiveness. 

The  principles  of  good  faith  and  honor  are 
sacredly  kept  among  these  simple  people, 
who  are  never  known  to  break  their  pledged 
word  under  any  circumstances. 

How  curious  would  an  English  girl  think 
the  preliminary  customs  that  a  virgin  in  this 
fine,  but  now  neglected,  country  must  ob- 
serve before  entering  upon  the  state  of  holy 
matrimony.  And  yet,  rude  and  primitive  as 
these  customs  are,  they  well  deserve  our  at- 
tention as  having  once  belonged,  in  part  at 
least,  to  a  wonderful  civilization,  now  lost, 
but  never  to  be  forgotten. 

Preparing  the  house  for  the  coming  festiv- 
ity, washing  with  ceremony  the  bride's 
head,  exhibiting  the  trvu&earu  for  the  inspec- 
tion of  the  matrons,  who  do  not  spare  their 
criticism  on  its  merits  or  demerits,  while  the 
young  and  thoughtless  are  busy  putting  a 
last  stitch  here  and  there  amid  gay  songs  and 
cheerful  talk  ;  the  ornamentation  of  cakes 
sent  round  to  friends  and  relatives  in  lieu  of 
invitation  cards, — all  these  are  old  customs 
which  ring  in  unison  with  the  peaceful  and 
industrious  habits  of  a  people  whose  life  in 
happier  times  reminded  one  of  the  Arcadias 
of  the  poets. 

Nor  is  the  marriage  ceremony  itself  void 
of  interest.  I  was  present  at  one  of  these 
while  staying  at  a  large  Bulgarian  settlement 
in  Upper  Macedonia.  The  village,  buried  in 
a  picturesque  glen,  looked  bright  and  cheery. 
Its  pretty  white  church  and  neat  school - 
house  stood  in  the  midst  ;  around  were  the 
farm-houses  and  cottages,  roofed  with  stone 
slabs,  standing  in  large  farmyards,  where  the 
golden  hay  and  corn-stacks,  the  green  trees, 
and  small  flower-beds  disputed  the  ground 
with  a  roving  company  of  children,  pigs,  and 
fowls. 

The  wedding  took  place  in  the  house  of  a 
rich  Chorbadji,  who  was  giving  his  daughter 
in  marriage  to  a  young  Bulgarian  from  a 
village  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  glen.  The 
festivities  began  on  a  Monday  and  lasted 
through  the  week,  each  day  bringing  its  du- 
ties and  pleasures,  its  songs,  music,  and  danc- 
ing,— indispensable  parts  of  a  Bulgarian  pea- 
sant's existence. 

On  the  eve  of  the  wedding-day  the  virgin 
meal  took  place,  each  maiden  arriving  with 
her  offering  of  sweets  in  her  hands.  It  was 
a  pretty  sight  to  look  at  all  those  bright 
young  faces,  for  the  time  free  from  care  and 
lighted  up  with  smiles  of  content  and  joy. 
It  takes  so  little  to  amuse  innocent  peasant 
girls,  for  whom  a  day  of  rest  is  a  boon  in  it- 
self, well  appreciated  and  generally  turned 
to  good  account. 

On  Sunday,  in  the  early  forenoon,  the  com- 
pany once  more  assembled.  The  children, 
washed  and  dressed,  played  about  the  yard, 
filling  the  air  with  their  joyous  yoices.  The 
matrons  led  their  daughters  in  their  bright 
costumes,  covered  with  silver  ornaments, 
their  heads  and  waists  garlanded  with  flow- 
ere.  The  young  men  also,  decked  out  in 
their  best,  and  equally  decorated  with  flow- 
ers, stood  to  see  them  pass  by,  and  to  ex- 
change significant  smiles  and  looks. 

On  entering  the  house,  I  was  politely 
offered  a  seat  in  the  room  where  the  bride,  in 
her  wedding  dress,  a  tight  mantelet  closely 
studded  with  silver  coins,  and  hung  about 
with  strings  of  coins  intertwined  with  flow- 
ers, sat  awaiting  the  arrival  of  the  bride- 
groom's company,  who  were  to  lead  her  to 
her  new  home.  The  sound  of  distant  music 
soon  announced  their  approach,  and  was  the 


signal  for  the  touching  scene  of  adieux.  All 
the  bride's  smiles  died  away,  and  tears  stood 
in  every  eye.  Kissing  hands  all  round,  and 
being  kissed  in  return,  she  was  led  by  her 
father  to  the  gate,  and  mounted  upon  a  horse 
that  awaited  her  ;  the  rest  of  the  company 
followed  her,  all  mounted  also.  The  scene 
changed,  and  as  we  rode  along  the  mountain 
paths  I  felt  myself  transported  into  the 
mythological  age  in  the  midst  of  a  company  of 
Thyiades,  garlanded  with  flowers  and  vine- 
leaves,  proceeding  to  the  celebration  of  their 
festival.  The  procession,  headed  by  a  stand- 
ard-bearer carrying  a  banner  surmounted 
by  an  apple,  and  followed  by  a  band  of 
music,  wended  its  way  along  the  mountain 
paths.  The  wild  strains  of  the  minstrels 
were  echoed  by  the  shouts  and  songs  of  the 
company,  excitedly  careering  among  the 
flowery  intricacies  of  the  mountain  passes, 
like  a  wild  chorus  of  Bacchantes.  On  enter- 
ing the  village,  the  procession  was  completed 
by  the  addition  of  the  Nunco  (best  man)  with 
the  Stardever,  who,  like  the  Kanephoroi  in 
the  Dionysia,  carried  baskets  of  fruit,  cakes, 
the  bridal  crowns,  and  the  flasks  of  wine,  and 
led  the  sacrificial  goat  with  its  gilded  horns, 
all  gifts  of  the  Nunco. 

On  arriving  at  the  gate  of  the  bridegroom's 
house,  the  standard-bearer  marched  in  and 
planted  his  banner  in  the  middle  of  the  court. 
The  bride,  following,  stayed  her  horse  before 
it,  and,  after  a  verse  had  been  sung  by  the 
company,*  she  bowed  three  times,  and  was 
assisted  to  dismount  by  her  father-in-law. 
On  parting  with  her  horse  she  kissed  his 
head  three  times,  and  then,  holding  one  end 
of  a  handkerchief  extended  to  her  by  her 
father-in-law,  was  led  into  a  kind  of  large 
cellar,  dimly  lighted  by  the  few  rays  that 
found  their  way  through  narrow  slits  high 
up  in  the  walls.  In  the  midst  stood  a  wine- 
barrel  crowned  with  the  bridal  cake,  on 
which  was  placed  a  glass  of  wine.  The 
scene  here  deepened  in  interest ;  the  priests, 
in  their  gorgeous  sacerdotal  robes  and  high 
black  hats,  holding  crosses  in  their  hands, 
stood  over  this  Bacchanalian  altar  awaiting 
the  bride  and  bridegroom,  who,  garlanled 
with  vine-leaves  and  also  holding  tapers,  ad- 
vanced solemnly,  when  the  sacred  Christian 
marriage  rite,  thus  imbued  with  the  myster- 
ies of  the  Dionysian  festivals,  was  performed. 
After  having  tasted  the  wine  contained  in  the 
glass,  and  while  walking  hand-in-hand  three 
times  round  the  barrel,  a  shower  of  fruits, 
cakes,  and  sugar-plums  was  thrown  over  the 
couple.  The  ceremony  ended  by  the  custom- 
ary kissing,  as  observed  among  the  Greeks. 
The  company  then  sat  down  to  a  hearty 
meal.  The  feasting  on  such  occasions  lasts 
till  morning  ;  dancing,  drinking,  and  singing 
continue  till  dawn,  without,  however,  any 
excess. 

The  next  day,  the  banner  crowned  with 
the  apple,  still  keeping  its  place,  proclaims  to 
the  guests  who  come  to  lead  the  bride  to  the 
village  well  to  throw  in  her  obol,  that  she  has 
virtuously  acquired  the  rights  of  a  wife. 
Should  the  reverse  be  the  case,  the  bride  re- 
ceives severe  corporal  punishment,  and 
mounted  on  a  donkey,  with  her  face  turned 
towards  its  tad,  which  she  holds  in  her 
hands,  is  led  back  to  her  father's  house — a 
barbarous  custom  which  must  be  set  aside 
after  the  disorders  lately  committed  in  this 
country. 

The  custom  of  marrying  in  the  most  re- 
tired part  of  the  house,  instead  of  the  church, 
among  the  peasants,  is,  according  to  my  in- 
formation, the  result  of  the  dread  they  had 
in  times  of  oppression  of  giving  unnecessary 
publicity  to  their  gatherings,  and  thus  invit- 
ing the  cupidity  of  some  savage  band  of 
their  oppressors,  who  scrupled  not  when 
they  had   a   chance  to  fall   upon  and  rob 


*  The  following  is  a  translation  of  this  distich  • — 
'  O  Maldcver  !  O  Stardever  !   why  do  you  wait  out- 
side ? 
Dismount  thy  steed  and  enter  thy  husband's  house, 
0  bride!" 


and  injure  them.  This  state  of  things  was 
brought  back  (hiring  late  events. 

Some  months  ago,  a  marriage  was  taking 

place  in  the  village  of  B ,  in  Macedonia. 

The  bridal  procession  had  just  returned 
from  church,  when  a  band  of  ferocious 
Turks  fell  upon  the  house  where  the  festivi- 
ties were  being  held,  robbing  and  beating 
right  and  left,  until  they  arrived  at  the  un- 
fortunate bride,  whom,  after  divesting  of 
all  her  belongings,  they  dishonored  and  left 
to  bewail  her  misfortunes  in  never-ending 
misery.  The  distracted  husband,  barely 
escaping  with  his  life,  rushed  into  the  street, 
loudly  calling  upon  his  Christian  brethren  to 
shoot  him  down,  and  thus  relieve  him  of  the 
life  whose  burden  he  could  not  bear. 

The  trousseau  of  a  Bulgarian  peasant  girl 
consists  of  the  following  articles  :  A  long 
shirt,  embroidered  with  fine  tapestry  work  in 
worsted  or  colored  silks  round  the  collar, 
sleeves,  and  skirt  ;  a  sleeveless  coat  (sutna), 
tightly  fitting  the  figure,  made  of  homespun 
woollen  tissue,  also  richly  embroidered;  a  sash 
(poyous),  made  of  plaited  wool,  half  an  inch 
wide  and  about  eighty  yards  long,  with  which 
they  gird  themselves  ;  an  overcoat,  also  em- 
broidered ;  an  apron,  completely  covered  with 
embroidery  ;  embroidered  woollen  socks,  gar- 
ters, and  red  shoes.  The  head-dress  varies 
according  to  the  district.  In  Bulgaria  proper 
a  sort  of  high  coif  is  worn,  not  unlike  the 
pointed  cap  of  English  ladies  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  In  Macedonia,  to  the  hair,  cut  short 
upon  the  forehead  and  plaited  behind  in  a 
number  of  braids,  is  added  a  long  fringe  of 
black  wool,  braided,  fastened  round  the  head 
and  falling  below  the  knees  ;  the  crown  of 
the  head  being  covered  with  a  richly  em- 
broidered white  cloth,  fastened  on  with  in- 
numerable silver  ornaments  and  strings  of 
coins.  The  whole  wardrobe,  made  of  strong, 
durable  materials,  is  homespun  and  home- 
made, and  being  elaborately  embroidered 
forms  an  ensemble  extremely  picturesque, 
very  durable,  and  well  adapted  to  the  mode 
of  life  of  the  wearers.  One  of  these  dresses 
often  requires  three  months'  constant  work 
to  accomplish  its  embroidery  ;  but  1  may  as 
well  add  that  it  will  take  a  lifetime  to  wear 
it  out. 

In  addition  to  these  articles  of  dress,  whose 
number  varies  according  to  the  condition  of 
the  person  for  whom  they  are  intended,  car- 
pets, rugs,  towels,  and  a  few  sheets  are 
added,  together  with  a  number  of  silver  orna- 
ments, such  as  belts,  necklaces,  earrings,  and 
bracelets,  some  of  which  are  extremely  pretty. 

The  Bulgarian  trousseaux,  needing  so  much 
time  and  work,  are  in  course  of  preparation 
while  the  children  for  whom  they  are  intend- 
ed are  still  in  their  infancy,  and  as  each  ar- 
ticle is  woven,  it  is  packed  away  in  a  long, 
bolster- shaped  bag,  in  unison  with  their  care- 
ful custom  of  exposing  their  belongings  to 
observation  as  littls»as  possible. 

I  shall  not  dwell  long  upon  the  marriage 
of  the  wealthy  in  large  towns  like  Philippop- 
olis.  The  religious  service  used  is  that  of 
the  orthodox  Greek  Church,  since  there  is  no 
doctrinal  difference  between  the  creeds  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Bulgarians. 

The  festivities,  both  among  rich  and  poor, 
are  continued  for  a  week  ;  the  former  still 
adhering  to  some  of  the  old  usages  for  form's 
sake.  In  the  town  of  Philippopolis  the  na- 
tive customs  have  been  in  part  set  aside  and 
replaced  by  the  European.  At  the  last  mar- 
riage I  witnessed  there  the  bride  was  a  shy 
little  beauty,  well  versed  in  her  own  lan- 
guage, with  a  pretty  good  knowledge  of 
modern  Greek  and  a  smattering  of  French. 
Her  trousseau,  like  those  of  many  of  her 
rank,  had  been  received  from  Vienna,  as  well 
as  the  bridal  dress,  veil,  and  wreaths,  pres- 
ents from  the  bridegroom.  Some  years  ago 
dowries  were  not  demanded,  but  a  good 
amount  of  fine  jewelry,  much  appreciated 
by  Bulgarian  ladies,  formed  an  indispensable 
appendage  to  the  trousseau. 

Besides    the  European  apparel  given  to 


52 


THE   PEOPLE  OF  TURKEY. 


brides,  a  large  amount  of  native  home-made 
articles  of  dress  and  house  linen  are  added 
Some  of  these  are  of  exquisite  taste  and 
workmanship,  such  as  crSpe  chemises,  made 
<>!'  mixed  raw  and  Boss  silk-,  embroidered 
towels  and  sheets, 'worked  with  an  art  and 
taste  that  can  well  viewlth  the  finest  French 
and  English  embroideries  ;  besides  i  issues  in 
home-woven  silk  and  cotton  for  bedding,  and 
oilier  articles  of  native  manufacture  that 
would  be  well  appreciated  if  they  could  find 
their  way  into  the  wardrobes  of  fashionable 
Europeans. 

The  Bulgarian  ilito  follow  Hie  custom  of 
being  asked  in  marriage  on  the  lady's  side. 

A  number  of  Bulgarians  arc  now  educated 
in  foreign  countries,  and  attain  distinction 
and  ureal  success  in  ihe  professions  they 
exercise,  When  a  sufficient  competence  for 
HIV  has  been  acquired,  they  return  to  their 

hollies  in  older  to  marry  on  their  nalivc  soil, 

to  which  they  an'  devotedlj  attached, 

Great  is  the  commotion  that    the    return  of 

one  of  these  absentees  occasions.  Each 
member  of  the  tribe  of  8troinicott»,  busily 
working  in  the  Interest  he  or  she  represents, 

tries   to   outdo   the  others,  until  the  com  led 

prize  Is  obtained.  In  the  mean  time  the  new- 
comer is  feasted  in  every  direction,  the  moth- 
ers doing  their  utmost  to  lie  amiable  and  the 

daughters  to  look  their  best;  white  the  fa 

1hcrs  are  calculating  whether  the  new  custom 

of  giving  dowries  to  their  daughters  is  likely 

to  he  one   of   the   conditions   of   Ihc  hopeful 

match,  (ireat  is  the  glee  of  a.  parent  on 
hearing  the  welcome  winds  of  ,\V  kern  pari,' 

mi   kumehupa   (I  ask  no  money  ;   I   want   the 

maiden),  upon  which  the  match  is  soon  con- 
cluded by  the  usual  routine  of  betrothal, 
exchange  of  contracts,  and  presents.  The 
lover  is  free  to  visit  his  JtancSe,  and  instill  into 
her  mind  the  ideas  and  feelings  that  must 
elevate  her  to  his  own  standard  ;  a  praise 
worthy  duty,  often  crowned  with  success 
when  the  husband  undertakes  il  in  earnest. 
Some  of  my  most,  esteemed  friends  in  Bul- 
garia Were  the  wives  of  highly  educated  men. 
The  knowledge  they  possessed  was   limited  ; 

but  they  were  gentle*  virtuous,  ladylike,  and 
admirable  housewives,  devoting  all  their 
efforts  to  the  education  and  Improvement  of 

their  children,  in  whom  they  try  to  develop 
those  talents  and  qualities  that  in  their  own 
youth  had  been  left  untrained.  The  Bulga- 
rians after  marriage  are  attached  to  their 
home,  husband  and  wife;  uniting  their  efforts 
to  make  it  comfortable  and  happy. 

a::mkni\n    WEDDINGS. 

flic  Armenian  flanfaiUei,  although  con- 
tracted in  a  \iay  simple  fashion,  ai'e  not 
easily  annulled,  and  can  only  be  set  aside  for 
very  serious  reasons. 

A  priest,  commissioned  by  the  friends  of 
the  aspirant,  makes  the  proposals  of  marriage 

to   the   young    lady's    parents.       Should    the 

offer  be  accepted,  he  is  again  sent,  accom- 
panied by  another  priest,  to  present  to  the 
flancU  a  small  gold  cross  bought  by  her  be- 
trothed for  the  benefit  of  the  Church,  and  of 
a  price  proportioned  to  the  means  of  the 
family.* 
Girls  are  given  in  marriage  at  a  very  early 

age,  .some  when  they  arc  but  Iwclve  years 
old  ;   but,   men   seldom  marry  before  they  are 

twenty-two. 

The  wedding  ceremony,  as  T  remember 
seeing  it  in  my  Childhood,  and  as  it  still  takes 
place  in  Armenia,  where  customs  <i  lit  franca 
have  not  yet  penetrated  among  the  primitive, 
semi-civilized  people,  is  a  truly  curious  pro- 
ceeding, Like  the  Turkish  wedding,  it  takes 
place OQ  a  Monday.  A  priest  is  sent  by  the 
bride's  parents  to  inform  those  of  the  bride- 
groom that  all  is  ready  and  the  Duham  may 
begin.  On  the  Friday,  invitations  are  issued 
and  the  bride  is  taken  to  the  bath  with  great 
ceremony.     On  the  Saturday,  musicians  arc 

*  These  eronei  are  of  throe  classes,  mid  range  in 
value  from  100  to  600  piastres— 14»'.  to  31.  10«. 


called  in,  and  all  the  young  maidens  assemble 
to  partake  of  a  feast  intended  especially  for 
them,  and  extended  to  the  poor,  who  come 
in  Hocks  to  share  in  the  good  things. 

Next  day  this  festivity  is  repeated  ,  the 
dinner  is  served  at  three,  and  the  VOUng  nun 
are   allowed   to   wait    upon   the  girls- 

privilege,  equally  pleasing  to  either  sex,  at 

other  times  excluded  from  each  Other's  soci- 
ety— audit,  is  needless  to  say  that  they  now 
make  the  most  of  their  opportunities. 

As  soon  as  this  repast  is  over,  the  married 
people  sit  down  to  the  wedding  dinner  in  a 
patriarchal  fashion,  husband  and  wife  side 

by  side,  while  the  young  men  arc  the  last  to 

partake  of  the  bridal  repast     In  the  even 
ing,  they  are  again  admitted  to  the  company 

of  the  ladies,  ou  the  plea  of  handing  refresh 
meats  to  them.  About  ten  o'clock  Hie  bride 
is  taken  into  another  room  by  her  friends, 
who  place  upon  her  head  a  curious  silver 
plate,  over  which  a  long  piece  of  scarlet  silk 
is  thrown,  falling  to  her  feet,  secured  at  the 
sides  by  ribbon-.,  enveloping  her  in  a   c 

plete  bag,  drawn  tight  at  the  lop  of  her  head, 
under  the  silver  plate;    two  extraordinary 

looking  Wings  called  aorgooeh,  made  of  still' 
card-board,  covered  with  feathers,  are  fas 
tened  ou  each  side  of  the  head.  When  this 
disguise  is  complete,  the  bride,  blindfolded 
by  her  veil,  is  led  forth  from  the  apartment, 
and  conducted  by  her  father  or  nearest  male 
relative  to  Open  a  round  dance,  during  the 
performance  of  which  money  is  showered 
over  her.  She  is  then  led  lo  a  corner,  where 
she  sits  awaiting  the  arrival  of  Ihc  bride 
groom  in  the  solitude  of  her  crimson  cane. 

The  bridegroom's  toilette  begins  carh  in 
the  afternoon  ■  he  is  seated  in  the  middle  of 
the  room  surrounded  by  a  joyous  company 
of  friends  ,   the  i/iiii/h/ku;  or   best  man,  and  a 

host  of  boys  arrive,  accompanied  by  the  band 

of  music  sent  in  search  of  them. 

The  barber,  an  all  important  functionary, 
must  not  be  overlooked  :  razor  in  hand,  gird 
cd  with  his  silk  scarf,  'his  towel  over  one 
■houlder,  and  a  species  of  leather  strap  over 
the  other,  he  commences  operations,  pro 
longed  during  an  Indefinite  period,  much  en 

livened  by  his  gossip  and  ton  mots,  and  turned 

to  bis  advantage  by  the  presents  he  receives 

from  the  assembled  company,  who,  one  by 
one,  suspend  their  gifts  on  a  cord,  stretched 
by  him  for  the  purpose  across  the  room. 
These  gifts  consist  chiefly  of  towels,  pieces 
of  cloth,  scarves,  etc.  When  the  gossip  con- 
siders the  generosity  of  the  company  ex- 
hausted, he  gives  the  signal  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  wedding  garments,  which,  brought 
in  state  together  with  the  bridegroom's  pics 
ents  to  his  bride,  must  receive  the  benedic 
tion  of  the  priest  before  they  can  be  used. 

Alter  the  evening  meal  has  been  partaken 
of,  the  gifts,  accompanied  by  the  musicians, 
are  conveyed  to  the  bride,  the  company  fol- 
lowing with  the  bridegroom,  who  walks  be- 
tween two  torches,  and  is  met  at  the  door  by 
another  band  of  music. 

On  entering  the  presence  of  his  future 
mother-in-law  and  her  nearest  relatives,  he 
receives  a  gift  from  her  and  respectfully 
kisses  her  hand.  Allowed  a  few  moments' 
rest,  he  is  seated  on  a  chair  between  two  dar- 
ing torches,  after  which  he  is  led  into  the 
presence  of  his  veiled  bride,  to  whom  he  ex- 
tends his  hand,  which  she  takes,  extricating 
her  own  with  difficulty  from  under  her  du  tak, 
and  is  assisted  to  descend  from  her  sofa  cor- 
ner, and  stands  facing  her  betrothed  with 
her  forehead  reclining  against  his.  A  short 
prayer,  called  the  "  half  service,"  is  read 
over  the  couple  ;  their  hands,  locked  together, 
must  not  be  loosed  till  they  arrive  at  the 
street  door,  when  two  bridesmaids  support- 
ing thp  bride  on  each  side  lead  her  at  a  slow 
pace  to  the  church. 

The  procession  is  headed  by  the  bride- 
groom and  his  men,  followed  by  the  bride 
and  the  ladies  ;  no  person  is  allowed  to  cross 
the  road  between  the  two  parties.  On  enter 
ing  the  sacred  edifice,  the  couple,  making  the 


sign  of  the  cross  three  times,  offer  a  prayer, 
believing  that  whatever  they  ask  at  this  mo- 
ment, will  be  granted  them  ;  they  Ihen  ap 
proach  the  altar  steps  and  stand  side  by  side. 
An  Armenian  superstition  considers  some 
days  more  propitious  than  others  for  the  cel- 
ebration of  weddings,  consequently  a  num- 
ber of  bridal  couples  generally  collect,  on  the 
same    day,   and    at,    the    same'   hour.      I    was 

present  on  one  occasion  when  the  church  at 

BrOUSSa,  although  a  vast,  building,  scarcely 
Sufficed  to  accommodate  the  friends  of  the 
sixty  couples  waiting  to  get  married.  The 
brides,  all  similarly  dressed,  were  pushed  for- 
ward by  the  dense  crowd  of  relatives,  friends, 
and  Spectators  towards  the  altar,  where  the 
Sixty  bridegrooms  awaited  them,  standing  in 
a  line.  Two  brides,  alike  in  Stature,  changed 
places,  in  the  hurry  and  confusion  of  Ihe 
moment.  One  was  a  pretty  peasant,  girl, 
whose  only  dower  was  her  beauty,  destined 
to  become  Hie  wife  of  a  blacksmith  ;  the 
other  was  Ihe  ugly  daughter  of  a  wealthy 
Armenian,  about  to  be  united  to  a  man  of 
her  own  station.  The  mistake  was  noticed, 
but  the  nuptial  knot  being  already  tied,  it 
was  too  late  to  be  rectified,  no  divorce  for  such 

a  cause  being  allowed  among  Armenians. 

The  bridegroom  who  could  only  complain 
in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view  made  the  best 
of  it, — doubtless  consoled  by  the  adage  Hint 
beauty  unadorned  is  adorned  the  most  ;  while 
the  blacksmith,  grcath  benefited  by  this  un- 
expected good  turn  from  Dame  fortune,  had 
probably  pleasant  dreams  of  abandoning  the 
hammer  and  anvil  and  passing  the  rest,  of  his 
days  in  case,  alllucnce,  and  plenty,  and  was 
ready  to  admit  that  riches,  like  fine  garments, 
may  hide  a  multitude  of  defects. 

But  let  us  return  to  the  marriage  ceremo- 
ny. The  first  part  of  the  service  is  read  by 
the  priest,  standing  on  the  altar  steps  ;  the 
COUpleS,  placed  in  a  row  before  him,  with 
the  best  men  and  boys  behind  him.  lie  asks 
each  couple  separately,  first  the  bridegroom, 
and  then  Hie  bride,  the  following  question  . 
— "  C/i/nfiis  topatlM  cabuUus  f"  *  To  which 
the  parties  answer  in  the  affirmative.      Should 

either  person  object  to  the  union,  the  objec 
tion  is  accepted,  and  the  marriage  cannot  be 

proceeded  with  ;  but  incidents  of  this  kind 
are  rare  :  only  one  ever  came  under  my  no 

lice. 

After  the  formalities  of  the  acceptance 
have  been  gone  through,  the  couple  stand 
facing  each  other,  with  their  heads  touching, 
and  a  small  gold  cross  is  lied  with  a  red  silk 
en  string  on  the  forehead  of  each,  and  Ihe 
symbol  of  the  Holy  Ghost  pressed  against 
them.  The  ceremony  terminates  by  the  par- 
taking of  wine  ;  after  which,  the  married 
pair  walk  hand-in-hand  to  the  door  of  the 
church  ;  but  from  the  church  to  her  home 
the  bride  is  once  more  supported  by  the 
bridesmaids.  The  moment  they  are  about  to 
cross  the  threshold,  a  sheep  is  sacrificed,  over 
whose  blood  they  Step  into  Hie  house. 

When  husband  and  wife  are  seated  side  In- 
side, the  guests  come  one  by  one,  kiss  the 
crosses  on  their  foreheads,  and  drop  coins 
into  a  tray,  for  the  benefit  of  the  officiating 
priest. 

The  bride  is  now  once  more  led  to  her  soli- 
tary corner  ;  the  veil,  which  she  has  been 
wearing  all  the  time  of  the  ceremony,  is  mo 
mentarily  lifted  from  her  lace,  and  she  is  re- 
freshed with  a  cup  of  coffee,  into  which  she 
drops  money  as  she  gives  it  back  ;  a  male 
child  is  then  placed  on  her  knees  for  a  short 
time.  This  formality  is  followed  by  a  regu- 
lar scramble  for  her  stockings  by  a  Hock  of 
children,  who  make  a  great  rush  towards  her 
feet,  pull  oft  her  boots  and  stockings,  which 
they  shake,  in  order  to  find  the  money  pre- 
viously placed  in  them. 

The"  bride  and  bridegroom  soon  after  open 
a  round  dance,  and  during  its  performance 
money  is  again  thrown  over  their  heads. 

The  bride  is  again  led  back  to  her  corner, 

*  Blind  or  lame,  is  he  or  she  acceptable  f 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


53 


where  she  remains  a  mute  and  veiled  image  ; 
Bleeping  at  night  with  that  awful  plate  on  her 
head,  and  guarded  by  her  maiden  friends, 
who  do  not .'desert  her  until  Wednesday  even- 
ing, when  the  bridegroom  is  finally  allowed 
to  dine  tSte-d-Ute  with  the  bride.  The  only 
ts  admitted  that  day  to  the  family  din- 
ner  are   the  priest   and   his  wife;   the   latter 

passes  the  night  in  the  house,  and  is  commis- 
sioned the  nexl  morning  to  carry  the  tidings 
to  Hie  bride's  mother  that  her  daughter  has 
happily  entered  upon  the  duties  of  married 

life. 

At  noon  a  luncheon  is  given  to  the  rela- 
tives and  friends,  who  collect  to  offer  their 
congratulations. 

On  Saturday,  the  ceremony  of  kissing  the 

hands  of  her  mother  and    father-in-law  is 

again  gone  through  ;  the  bridal  veil  on  this 
occasion  is  replaced  by  one  of  crimson  erSpe, 
which  she  wears  until  her  father-in  law  gives 
her  a  present  and  allows  her  to  remove  it. 
Brides  are  not  allowed  to  utter  a  word  in  the 
presence  of  a  near  relative  of  their  husband 
until  permitted  to  do  so  by  his  father.  This 
permission,  however,  is  sometimes  not  easily 
obtained,  and  years  may  elapse  before  it  is 
given.  Many  a  young  wife  has  gone  to  her 
grave  without  having  spoken  to  her  father- 
and  mother-in-law. 

Though  the  Armenians  arc  sensual  and 
despotic,  they  generally  make  good  hus- 
bands ;  but  the  standard  of  morality  is  get- 
ting lax  among  the  emancipated  followers  of 
the  customs  ii  In  Franca,  who,  being  entirely 
ignorant  of  the  rules  of  true  breeding,  often 
abuse  the  freedom  of  European  manners. 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

FTJNEHAL  CEREMONIES. 

Modem  Funerals— Yaisdism— Ceremonies  before 
Burial  -Testimony  of  the  Guests— Procession  to  the 
Grave  -The  [mam's  Gaestlaning — Funerals  of  Wo- 
men— Effects  of  Rapid  Burial— Sorrow  for  the  Dead— 
Mourning— Prayers  for  the  Dead— Funeral  of  a  Der- 
vish Sheikh. 

(Irak  Finn  rah. — Remains  of  Ancient  Greek  Rites— 
Myrtologia— The  Obol  for  Charon— The  Funeral  Ser- 
vice Toe  Interment— Mourning— Second  Marriage— 
Masses  for  the  Souls  of  the  Departed— Wheat  Offer- 
ings—Opening of  the  Tomb  and  Collecting  of  the 
Bones  —  Bulgarian  Ceremonies  —  Messages  to  the 
Other  World. 

Few  people  in  the  world  view  the  ap- 
proach of  death  with  such  indifference,  or 
receive  its  fatal  blow  with  such  calmness  and 
resignation,  as  the  Moslems. 

According  to  some  verses  taken  from  the 
Koran,  earthly  existence  is  but  a  fleeting 
shadow,  seen  for  a  moment,  then  lost  sight 
of  forever  ;  its  joys  and  pleasures  all  delu- 
sion ;  itself  a  mere  stepping-stone  to  the 
celestial  life  awaiting  the  true  believer. 

"  Know  that  this  life  is  but  a  sport — a 
pastime — a  show — a  cause  of  vain-glory 
among  you  !  And  the  multiplying  of  riches 
and  children  is  like  the  (plants  which  spring 
up  after)  rain  ;  whose  growth  rejoices  t In; 
husbandman  ;  then  they  wither  away  and 
thou  seest  them  all  yellow  ;  then  they  be- 
come stubble."  * 

Kismet  (destiny)  and  Edjel  (the  appointed 
time  of  death)  are  decreed  by  Allah.  Every 
one  of  his  creatures  has  these  traced  on  his 
forehead  in  invisible  letters.  Kismet,  dispos- 
ing of  his  earthly  career;  Edjel,  fixing  its 
duration  and  the  nature  of  its  end.  "  To  an 
appointed  time  doth  he  respite  them."f 

Been  from  this  fatalistic  point  of  view,  the 
terrors  of  death  impress  Moslems  mostly 
when  viewed  from  a  distance  ;  and  its  name, 
softened  by  some  poetical  expression,  is  never 
uttered  in  refined  society  without  the  preface 
of  Sis  den  irak  olsoun,  "  Far  be  it  from  you  ," 
and  the  common  people  invariably  spit  be- 
fore uttering  it. 

At  the  approach  of  death,  the  moribund 
appears  resigned  to  his  fate,  and  his  friends 
reconciled  to  the  thought  of  his  approaching 
end.     No  Imam  or  servant  of  God  is  called 


•  Sourah  Mi.  v.  19. 


t  Sourah  xxxv.  v.  44. 


in  to  soothe  the  departing  spirit  or  speed  its 
flight  by  the  administration  of  sacraments. 
The  friends  and  relatives  collected  round  the 
couch  weep  In  silence,  and  if  the  departing 
one  is  able  to  speak,  hclal  (forgiveness)  is  re- 
quested and  given.  Prayers  are  repeated  by 
the  pious,  to  keep  away  the  evil  spirits  that 
are  supposed  to  collect  in  greater  force  at 
such  moments.  Charitable  donations  are 
made,  and  other  acts  of  generosity  performed 
at  death-beds ;  and  frequently  at  such  times 

slaves  are  set  free  by  their  owners  ;  for  it  is 
written  :  "  They  who  give  alms  by  night  and 
by  day,  in  private;  and  in  public,  shall  have 
their  reward  with  their  Lord  ;  no  fear  shall 
come  upon  them,  neither  shall  they  grit 

The  moment,  the  soul  is  believed  to  have 
quitted  the  body,  the  women  begin  to  utter 
waitings.  Some  tear  their  hair,  others  beat 
their  bi-easts,  in  au  outburst  of  genuine  sor- 
row. A  lull  soon  follows,  and,  without  loss 
of  time,  preparations  are  made  for  performing 
the  last  duties  to  the  corpse;  for  the  Turks 
do  not  keep  their  dead  unburied  any  longer 
than  is  necessary  for  the  completion  of  these 
preliminaries. 

If  the  death  be  that  of  a  person  of  conse- 
quence, the  Muezzin  chants  the  special  cry 
from  the  minaret;  and  invitations  are  issued 
to  friends  and  acquaintances  for  the  funeral. 
Directly  after  death  the  eyelids  are  pressed 
down  and  the  chin  bandaged;  1  lie  body  is  un- 
dressed and  laid  on  a  bed  called  rn/mt  yiitnk 
("couch  of  comfort")  with  the  hands 
stretched  by  the  side,  the  feet  tied  together, 
and  the  head  turned  towards  the  Kil/'n.  A 
veil  is  then  laid  over  the  body.  While  the 
company  is  gathering  in  the  Selamlik,  or  in 
the  street,  performing  the  ablution  (abtest), 
and  preparing  for  the  prayer  {iiamaz),  the 
corpse,  if  it  be  that  of  a  man,  is  taken  into 
the  court-yard  on  the  stretcher,  and  an  Imam, 
with  two  subordinates,  proceeds  to  wash  it. 

The  formalities  connected  with  this  obser- 
vance are  of  strictly  religious  character,  and 
consequently  carried  out  to  the  letter.  The 
first  condition  to  be  observed  is  to  keep  the 

lower  part,  of  the  body  covered,  the  next  to 
handle  it  with  great  gentleness  and  attention, 
lest  those  engaged  in  the  performance  of  that 
duty  draw  upon  them  the  curse  of  the  dead. 
Seven  small  portions  of  cotton  are  rolled  up 
in  seven  small  pieces  of  calico  ;  each  of  these 
is  successively  passed  between  the  limbs  by 
the  Imam,  while  some  hot  water  is  poured 
over  the  bundles,  which  are  then  east  away 
one  sifter  the  other.  After  the  rest  of  the 
body  has  been  washed,  the  obtest,  or  formal 
religious  ablution,  is  administered  to  it.  This 
consists  in  washing  the  hands,  and  in  bring- 
ing water  in  the  hand  three  times  to  the  nose, 
three  times  to  the  lips,  and  three  times  from 
the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  temples  ;  from 
behind  the  cars  to  the  neck  ;  from  the  palm 
of  the  hand  to  the  elbow,  and  then  to  the 
feet,  first  to  the  right  and  then  to  the  left. 
This  strange  ceremony  is  performed  twice. 
The  liihmii  (coffin)  is  then  brought  in  and 
placed  by  the  side  of  the  stretcher,  both  of 
coarse  deal,  put  together  with  the  rudest 
workmanship.  Before  laying  the  body  in  the 
coffin,  a  piece  of  new  calico,  double  its  size, 
is  brought.  A  strip  about  two  inches  in 
width  is  torn  off  the  edge,  and  divided  into 
three  pieces,  which  are  placed  upon  three 
long  scarves  laid  across  the  shell.  The  cali- 
co, serving  as  a  shroud,  is  next  stretched  in 
the  coffin,  and  a  thousand  and  one  drachms 
of  cotton,  with  which  to  envelope  the  corpse, 
are  placed  upon  it.  Some  of  this  cotton  is 
used  to  stop  the  issues  of  the  body,  and  is 
placed  under  the  armpits  and  between  the 
ringers  and  toes. 

The  body  is  then  dressed  in  a  sleeveless 
shirt,  called  kaflct,  and  is  gently  placed  in 
the  coffin.  Pepper  is  sifted  on  the  eyes,  and 
a  saline  powder  on  the  face,  to  preserve  from 
untimely  decay  ;  rose-water  is  then  sprinkled 
on  the  face,  which  is  finally  enveloped  in  the 


*  Sourah  ii.  v.  875. 


remainder  of  (he  cotton.  The  shroud  is  then 
drawn  over  and  secured  by  the  three  strips  of 
calico,  one  tied  round  the  head,  the  other 
round  the  waist  and  the  third  round  the  feet, 
and  the  collin  is  closed  down. 

When  all  is  ready,  the  guests  are  admit- 
ted ;  and  the  Imam,  tinning  round,  asks  the 
crowd:  "<)  congregation!  What  do  you 
ider  the  life  ox  this  man  to  have  been?" 
"Good,"  is  the  invariable  response.  •'  Then 
give  hdal  to  him." 

The  Coffin,  covered  with  shawls  and  carry- 
ing at  the. head  the  turban  or  fez  of  the 
deceased  hung  on  a  peg,  is  then  borne  on  the 
shoulders  of  lour  or  more  individuals  who 
are  constantly  relieved  by  others  ;  and  the 
funeral  procession,  composed  exclusively  of 
men,  headed  by  the  Imam  and  Ilodjas,  slow- 
ly winds  its  way  in  silence  through  the 
streets  until   it  arrives  at    the   mosque  where 

the  funeral  service  is  to  be  read.    The  coffin 

is  deposited  On  a  slab  of  marble,  and  a  short 

Xamaz,  called  Mihit  Namaz,  is  performed  by 

the  congregation  standing.  This  concluded, 
the  procession  resumes  its  way  to  the  burial- 
ground,  where  the  collin  is  deposited  by  the 
side  of  the  grave,  which,  for  a  man,  is  dug 
up  to  the  height  of  a  man's  waist,  for  a  wo- 
man, up  to  her  shoulder. 

A  small  clod  of  earth,  left  at  one  end  of  the 
excavation,    in    the   direction    of   the    KiMn, 

takes  the  place  of  a  pillow.    The  collin  is  then 

uncovered,  and  the  body  gently  lifted  out' of  it 
by  the  ends  of  the  three  scarves,  previously 
placed  under  it  (one  supporting  the  head, 
another  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  the  third 
the  feel),  and  lowered  into  its  last,  resting- 
place.  A  short  prayer  is  then  recited,  a 
plank  or  two  laid  at  a  little  distance  above 
the  body,  and  the  grave  is  filled  up. 

At  this  stage,  all  the  congregation  with- 
draw, and  the  Imam  is  left  alone  by  the  side 
of  the  grave,  where  he  is  believed  to  enter 
into  mysterious  communications  with  the 
spirit  of  the  departed,  who  is  supposed  to 

answer  all   the  questions  'in  his  creed  which 

his  priest  puts  to  him.  He  is  prompted  in 
these  answers  by  two  spirits,  one  good  and 
one  evil,  who  are  believed  to  take  their  places 

by  his  side.  Should  he  have  been  an  indif- 
ferent follower  of  the  Prophet,  and  forbid- 
den to  enter  Paradise,  the  evil  spirit  forces 
him  to  deny  the  only  true  God,  and  make  a 
profession  unto  himself.  A  terrible  battle  is 
supposed  to  ensue  in  the  darkness  of  the 
grave  between  the  good  and  evil  spirits  called 
Yn iii/iii  nr  and  Veiuqtteur*  The  good  angel 
spares  not  his  blows  upon  the  corpse  and  the 
evil  spirit,  until  the  latter,  beaten  and  disa- 
bled, abandons  his  prey,  who  by  Allah's 
mercy  la  finally  accepted  within  tiic  fold  of 
the  true  believers. 

This  scene,  however,  is  revealed  to  none  by 
the  Imam,  and  remains  a  secret  between  Al- 
lah, the  departed,  and  himself.  1  have  ques- 
tioned several  Mohammedans  of  different 
classes  about  this  Superstition,  and  they  all 
appear  to  believe  in  it  implicitly.  Most  cred- 
ulous are  the  women,  who  embellish  the  tale 
with  Oriental  exaggeration  and  wonderful 
fancies  that,  pass  description. 

The  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  women  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  men,  with  the  excep- 
tions, that  die  washing  is  done  by  women 
screened  from  view,  and  that  when  the  body 
is  laid  upon  the  "  couch  of  comfort,"  the 
face,  as  well  as  the  body,  is  half  covered,  in- 
stead of  the  body  only  During  the  proces- 
sion the  only  apparent  difference  is  that,  in- 
stead of  the  fez  on  the  peg  at  the  head  of  the 
coffin,  one  sees  the  clumber,  or  coif. 

The  necessity  of  immediate  burial  in  hot 
climates  where  Islam  had  its  birth  and  passed 
its  childhood  must  have  been  the  cause  of 
the  adoption  of  the  custom  in  Turkey.  It 
has  the  disadvantage,  that  in  the  time  of  an 
epidemic,  such  as  cholera,  a  great  number  of 
people  arc  falsely  taken  for  (lead  and  buried 

*  The  evil  being  is  supposed  to  be  of  immense  Bize, 
his  upper  lip  touching  heaven,  and  his  lower  earth  ; 
aud  he  holds  in  his  hand  a  huge  irou  cudgel. 


54 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


alive  ,  but  when  accident  reveals  the  dis- 
turbed condition  of  these  unfortunate  beings 
to  the  living,  instead  of  exciting  the  horror 
of  relations,  the  disturbance  is  universally 
attributed  to  struggles  with  evil  spirits  after 
burial.  Few  invalids  receive  regular  medical 
attendance,  and  post-mortem  examinations 
are  unheard  of. 

It  is  considered  sinful  for  parents  to  mani- 
fest extreme  sorrow  for  the  loss  of  their  chil- 
dren ;  for  it  is  believed  that  the  children  of 
over-mourning  parents  are  driven  out  of 
Paradise  and  made  to  wander  about  in  dark- 
ness and  solitude,  weeping  and  wailing  as 
their  parents  do  on  earth.  But  it  is  the  re- 
verse with  the  case  of  children  bereaved  of 
their  parents  ;  they  are  expected  never  to 
cease  sorrowing,  and  are  required  to  pray 
night  and  day  for  their  parents'  forgiveness 
and  acceptance  into  Paradise. 

Part  of  the  personal  effects  of  the  deceased 
is  given  to  the  poor,  and  charity  distributed, 
according  to  the  means  of  the  family.  On 
the  third  day  after  the  funeral,  loukmas 
(doughnuts),  covered  with  sifted  sugar,  are 
distributed  to  the  friends  of  the  family  and 
to  the  poor,  for  the  benefit  of  the  soul  of  the 
departed.  The  ceremony  is  repeated  on  the 
seventh  and  the  fortieth  days,  when  bread  is 
also  distributed.  These  acts  of  charity  are 
supposed  to  excite  the  gratitude  of  the  de- 
parted, if  already  in  Paradise,  and  if  in  "  an 
other  place"  to  occasion  him  a  moment  of 
rest  and  comfort. 

External  marks  of  mourning  are  not  in 
usage  among  the  Turks.  Nothing  is  changed 
in  the  dress  or  routine  of  life  in  consequence 
of  a  death  in  a  family.  Visits  of  condolence 
are,  however,  paid  by  friends,  who,  on  enter- 
ing, express  their  sympathy  by  the  saying, 
Sis  sagh  oloun  evlatlarounouz  sagh  olsoun 
("May  you  live,  and  may  your  children 
live"),  with  other  expressions  of  a  similar 
nature.  Friends  and  relatives  say  prayers  at 
stated  times  for  the  soul  of  the  departed.  On 
my  mentioning  to  a  Turkish  lady  that  I  was 
about  to  visit  a  common  friend  who  a  year 
before  had  lost  a  beautiful  daughter  of  four- 
teen years,  she  begged  me  to  say  that  her 
two  girls,  friends  of  the  child,  never  failed  to 
offer  prayers  for  the  departed  soul  every  day 
at  noon.  After  the  first  outbreak  of  grief, 
both  men  and  women  become  calm  and  quite 
collected  in  appearance,  and  speak  of  the 
event  as  one  that  could  not  have  been  averted 
by  human  help. 

When  a  dervish  sheikh  of  repute  dies,  his 
remains  are  followed  to  the  grave  by  all  the 
members  of  his  brotherhood,  by  dervishes  of 
the  other  orders,  and  a  large  concourse  of  the 
population.  It  is  a  most  impressive  and  in- 
teresting sight :  the  long  procession  slowly 
winding  through  the  narrow  streets,  the  va- 
riety of  costumes  presented  by  the  numerous 
orders  of  the  dervishes,  some  with  flowing 
robes  and  high  sugar-loaf  hats,  others  with 
white  felt  caps  and  green  or  white  turbans  ; 
all  with  bowed  heads  and  looks  of  deep  hu- 
mility, uttering  at  intervals  the  sacred  word 
Allah!  On  passing  a  mosque  or  tekke,  the 
coffin  is  deposited  in  front  of  the  gate,  and  a 
service  is  chanted,  the  congregation  joining 
in  the  refrain  of  Amin !  Amin !  when  the 
body  is  again  taken  up  and  the  procession 
resumed. 

The  long  survival  of  ancient  customs  is  a 
continual  subject  of  surprise  and  interest  ; 
but  nowhere  is  their  seeming  immortality 
more  remarkable  than  among  the  subject 
races  of  Turkey.  The  Greeks,  whether  resi- 
dents of  Greece,  Macedonia,  Epirus,  or  other 
parts  of  south-east  Europe,  have  in  many 
respects  become  assimilated  to  the  different 
races  among  whom  they  live  ;  but  nowhere 
do  they  appear  to  have  lost  in  any  marked 
degree  the  characteristic  features  of  their  na- 
tionality— their  language  or  their  ancient  cus- 
toms. Christianity  and  other  causes  have 
modified  many  of  the  ancient  ceremonies, 
but  a  rich  heritage  still  remains  to  certify 
their  origin  and  bear  testimony  to  the  antiq- 


uity of  their  descent.  Among  the  most 
striking  of  these  heirlooms  are  the  funeral 
rites,  in  which  the  modern  Greeks  closely 
preserve  the  traditions  of  their  ancestors. 
The  fundamental  points  in  these  ceremonies 
are  the  same  among  Greeks  wherever  they 
may  be,  and  are  everywhere  observed  by 
them  with  religious  care. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  fune- 
ral ceremonies  observed  in  Macedonia  and  in 
other  parts  of  European  Turkey. 

At  the  approach  of  death  a  priest  is  sent 
for  to  administer  the  sacrament  to  the  sick 
man.  The  family  gather  round  the  couch, 
give  the  dying  person  the  kiss  of  farewell, 
and  press  down  his  eyelids  when  his  soul  has 
departed.  His  couch  and  linen  are  changed, 
and  after  being  anointed  with  oil  and  wine, 
and  sprinkled  with  earth,  he  is  dressed  in  his 
most  gorgeous  apparel  upon  a  table  covered 
with  a  linen  cloth,  with  the  feet  pointing  to- 
wards the  door,  with  hands  crossed  on  the 
breast,  and  limbs  stretched  out  to  their  full 
extent.  A  stone  is  placed  in  the  room  and  left 
there  for  three  days.  Friends  watch  round 
the  body,  chanting  Myriologia,*  or  dirges, 
lamenting  his  loss  and  illustrating  his  life 
and  the  cause  of  his  death.  Tapers  are  kept 
burning  all  night  round  the  body,  which  is 
decorated  with  flowers  and  green  branches. 
A  cup  is  placed  on  the  body  and  buried  with 
it  ;  after  the  expiration  of  three  years  it  is 
taken  out  and  treasured  in  the  family. 
Should  a  person  suffer  from  the  effects  of 
fright,  water  is  given  to  him  in  this  cup 
without  his  knowledge,  which  is  supposed  to 
prevent  any  ill  consequences.  The  inter- 
ment usually  takes  place  on  the  day  follow- 
ing the  death.  Invited  friends  assemble  at 
the  house  of  mourning,  the  priests  arrive,  and 
the  coffin,  uncovered,  is  wreathed  with  flow- 
ers. The  obol  of  the  ancients,  the  vavlov  for 
Charon,  is  not  forgotten  ;  a  small  coin  is 
placed  between  the  lips,  and  a  cake,  soaked 
in  wine,  is  eaten  by  the  company,  who  say, 
'0  Oebc  avyxupriau  top.  After  the  prelim- 
inary prayers  have  been  offered,  the  funeral 
procession  proceeds  to  the  church.  Crosses 
are  carried  by  the  clergy  and  lighted  tapers 
by  others.  The  coffin  is  borne  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  men,  and  black  streamers,  raivla,  at- 
tached to  it  are  held  by  the  elders  of  the  com- 
munity or  the  persons  of  greatest  importance 
present. 

Prayers  are  chanted  as  the  funeral  train 
slowly  proceeds  to  the  church,  where  the 
body  is  placed  in  the  nave.  When  the  pray- 
ers and  funeral  mass  are  concluded,  the 
priest  tells  the  relatives  and  intimate  friends 
of  the  deceased  to  give  him  the  farewell  kiss. 
On  arriving  at  the  cemetery,  the  bier  is  placed 
by  the  side  of  the  grave,  the  last  prayers  are 
offered,  the  coffin-lid  is  nailed  down,  and  the 
body  is  lowered  into  the  earth.  After  the 
priest  has  thrown  in  a  spadeful  of  gravel  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  the  spade  is  passed  to  the 
relatives,  who  do  the  same  in  turn,  with  the 
words  'O  Oedc  ovyxupiiou  Ttjv  ipvxt/v  rov 
("God  rest  his  soul").  The  bier  is  then 
again  covered  with  the  pall,  and  the  grave  is 
filled  up.  On  returning  to  the  house  of  sor- 
row, water  and  towels  are  offered  to  the 
guests  for  washing  their  hands.  They  then 
sit  down  to  a  repast,  at  which  fish,  eggs,  and 
vegetables  alone  are  eaten. 

The  mourning  worn  by  Greeks  is  similar 
to  that  of  other  European  nations  ;  all  orna- 
ments, jewelry,  and  colored  apparel  are  set 
aside,  and  both  sexes  dress  in  plain  black, 
and  in  some  instances  dress  their  furniture  in 
covers  of  the  same  mournful  hue.  The  men 
often  let  their  beards  grow  as  a  sign  of  sor- 
row, and  women  frequently  cut  off  their  hair 
at  the  death  of  their  husbands,  and  bury  it 
with  them  ;  I  have  known  many  instances  of 
this  custom.     In  Epirus  and  Thessaly  a  wid- 


*  In  some  inland  towns  the  relatione  continue  to 
chant  the  Myriologia  all  the  way  to  the  church,  and 
afterwards  to  the  burial-ground. 


ow  would  lose  respect  if  she  contracted  a  sec- 
ond marriage,  and  in  other  parts  it  would  be 
strictly  prohibited  by  custom. 

On  the  evenings  of  the  third,  ninth, 
twentieth,  and  fortieth  days,  masses  are 
said  for  the  soul  of  the  departed.  These  are 
called  kolyva.  On  the  fortieth  kolyva,  two 
sacks  of  flour  are  made  into  bread,  and  a  loaf 
sent  to  every  family  of  friends  as  an  invita- 
tion to  the  service  held  in  the  church.  Boiled 
wheat  is  placed  on  a  tray,  and  ornamented, 
if  for  a  young  person,  with  red  and  white 
sugar  ;  if  for  an  elderly  person,  with  white 
only.  This  is  sent  to  the  church  previously, 
prayers  are  read  over  it,  and  every  person 
takes  a  handful,  saying  '0  Oeoc  avyxupvaci 
tov,  and  a  small  bottle  of  wine  is  presented 
to  the  priests. 

On  the  following  morning  the  friends  as- 
semble at  the  house  of  mourning,  and  take 
more  boiled  wheat  to  church.  On  returning, 
they  sit  down  to  a  meal,  after  again  saying 
'O  Oebq  ovyxupTjcei  rov.  This  concluded, 
they  proceed  to  the  grave,  accompanied  by 
the  priest,  and  erect  a  tombstone.  A  feast  is 
subsequently  given  to  the  poor. 

Tapers  are  kept  burning  in  the  house  for 
forty  days.  On  the  last  of  these  a  list  of  the 
ancestors  of  the  deceased  is  read,  and  pray- 
ers are  offered  for  their  souls.  These  cere- 
monies are  repeated  at  intervals  during  the 
space  of  three  years,  at  the  expiration  of 
which  the  tomb  is  opened,  and  if  the  body  is 
sufficiently  decomposed,  the  bones  are  col- 
lected in  a  cloth,  placed  in  a  basket,  dressed 
in  fine  raiment,  adorned  with  flowers,  and 
taken  to  church,  where  they  are  left  for  nine 
days.  Every  evening  the  relatives  go  to  say 
prayers,  and  take  boiled  wheat  to  the  church. 
If  the  person  had  been  of  some  standing, 
twelve  priests  and  a  bishop  perform  mass. 
The  bones  are  then  put  in  a  box,  surmounted 
by  a  cross,  and  replaced  in  the  tomb. 

Should  the  body  not  be  sufficiently  decom- 
posed at  the  end  of  the  three  years,  it  is 
supposed  to  be  possessed,  and  for  three  years 
longer  the  same  prayers  and  ceremonies  are 
repeated. 

The  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  Bulgarians 
differ  from  those  of  the  Greeks  only  in  their 
preliminary  usages.  The  religious  service  is 
very  similar.  The  sacrament  is  administered 
to  the  dying  person,  and  his  last  hours  are 
cheered  bv  the  presence  of  relatives  and 
friends. 

After  death  he  is  laid  upon  a  double  mat- 
tress between  sheets,  and  completely  dressed 
in  his  gala  costume,  with  new  shoes  and 
stockings.  A  pillow  of  homespun  is  filled 
with  handfuls  of  earth  by  all  the  persons 
present,  and  placed  under  the  head. 

A  curious  idea  prevails  that  messages  can 
be  conveyed  by  the  departing  soul  to  other 
lost  friends  by  means  of  flowers  and  candles, 
which  are  deposited  on  a  plate  placed  on  the 
breast  of  the  corpse. 

An  hour  after  death  a  priest  comes  to  read 
prayers  for  the  dead,  tapers  are  lighted,  and 
dirges  chanted  until  the  following  morning, 
when  the  clergy  again  arrive  to  accompany 
the  body  to  its  last  resting-place.  Mass  is 
performed  in  the  church,  and  when  the  pro- 
cession reaches  the  grave  a  barrel  of  wine  is 
opened,  and  boiled  wheat,  with  loaves,  are 
distributed  to  all  present,  who  say  Bor/da  pros- 
it ("  God  have  mercy  on  his  soul").  The 
gay  costume  is  taken  off,  and  libations  of  oil 
and  wine  poured  on  the  body  ;  the  shroud  is 
drawn  over  the  face,  the  coffin  nailed  down 
and  lowered  into  the  grave. 

Returning  to  the  house  of  mourning,  the 
company  wash  their  hands  over  the  fire,  and 
three  days  afterwards  everything  in  the 
house  is  washed.  The  objects  that  cannot 
be  washed  are  sprinkled  with  water  and  ex- 
posed to  the  air  for  three  days,  given  to  the 
poor,  or  sold. 

The  ceremonies  of  the  kolyva  are  the  same 
as  among  the  Greeks,  and  the  bones  are  dis- 
interred at  the  end  of  three  years,  with  the 
same  observances. 


THE  PEOPLE  OF   TURKEY. 


55 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

EDUCATION   AMONG    THE   MOSLEMS. 

Ilami  Education.-* Influence  of  the  Mother— Disre- 
spect of  Children— Toys— No  Bath  nor  any  Exercise— 
Bad  Influence  of  Servants— No  Discipline— Dirtiness— 
l)r(vs  —  Food  —  Conversation— Tutors  —  Nurses  —  Im- 
moral Influence  of  the  Dadi— The  Lala— Turkish  Girls 
and  Education  —  An  Exceptional  Family  —  Turks 
'■educated  "  at  Paris— Religious  Shackles. 

Moslem  Schools— Meitebs,  or  National  Schools— 
Dogmatic  Theology  taught— Reforms— Jlushdiyes— 
ere'  School  — Reforms  of  Ali  and 
Fooad  Pasha— The  Schools  of  Salonika— State  of  Edu- 
cation in  these  Schools— Moslem  View  of  Natural 
Science— The  Dulm6  Girls'  School  — The  Turkish 
Girls'  School— Tho  Lyceum:  its  Design,  Temporary 
Success,  and  Present  Abandonment— Tho  Medresses — 
Education  of  the  Upper  Classes— Official  Ignorance. 

The  absence  of  any  approach  to  sound 
education  of  the  most  rudimentary  kind 
throughout  the  country  is  among  the  prime 
causes  of  the  present  degraded  condition  of 
the  Turks.  Both  at  home  and  at  school  the 
Moslem  learns  almost  nothing  that  will  serve 
him  in  good  stead  in  after  life.  Worse  than 
this,  in  those  early  years  spent  at  home, 
when  the  child  ought  to  have  instilled  into 
him  some  germ  of  those  principles  of  con- 
duct by  which  men  must  walk  in  the  world 
if  they  are  to  hold  up  their  heads  among  civ- 
ilized nations,  the  Turkish  child  is  only 
taught  the  first  steps  towards  those  vicious 
habits  of  mind  and  body  which  have  made 
his  race  what  it  is.  The  root  of  the  evil  is 
partly  found  in  the  harem  system.  So  long 
as  that  system  keeps  Turkish  women  in  their 
present  degraded  state,  so  long  will  Turkish 
boys  and  girls  be  vicious  and  ignorant. 

Turkish  mothers  have  not  the  slightest 
control  over  their  children.  They  are  left  to 
do  very  much  as  they  like,  become  wayward, 
disobedient,  and  unbearably  tyrannical.  I 
have  often  noticed  young  children,  especially 
boys,  strike,  abuse,  and  even  curse  their 
mothers, who,  helpless  to  restrain  them,  either 
respond  by  a  torrent  of  foul  invective,  or,  in 
their  maternal  weakness,  indulgently  put  up 
with  il,  saying,  "  Jahil  chqjtik,  ne  belir?" 
("  Innocent  child  !  what  does  it  know  ?") 

I  was  once  visiting  at  a  Pasha's  house, 
where,  among  the  numerous  company  pres- 
ent, a  shrivelled-up  old  lady  made  herself 
painfully  conspicuous  by  the  amount  of 
rouge  on  her  cheeks.  The  son  of  my  hostess, 
an  impudent  little  scamp  of  ten  years,  inde- 
pendently marched  in,  and,  roughly  pulling 
his  mother  by  her  skirt,  demanded  a  beshlik 
(shilling) ;  she  attempted  a  compromise,  and 
offered  half  the  sum,  when  the  young  rascal, 
casting  side  glances  at  the  painted  old  lady, 
stud,  ' '  A.  whole  besMik,  or  I  will  out  with  all 
you  said  about  that  hanoum.  and  her  rouged 
cheeks,  as  well  as  that  other  one's  big  nose  !" 
My  friend,  exceedingly  embarrassed,  under 
this  pressure,  acceded  to  her  son's  demand, 
the  only  way  she  could  see  of  getting  rid  of 
his  troublesome  company. 

As  a  general  rule  the  manner  in  which 
children  use  their  mothers  among  the  lower 
classes  is  still  worse,  and  quite  painful  to 
witness.  When  these  youngsters  are  not  at 
school  they  may  be  seen  playing  in  the  street, 
paddling  in  the  water  near  some  fountain, 
making  mud-pies,  or  playing  with  walnuts 
and  stones,  at  times  varying  their  amuse- 
ments, in  some  retired  quarter,  by  annoy- 
ing Christian  passers-by,  calling  out  Giaour 
gepek!  ("  Infidel  dog"),  and  throwing  stones 
at  them.  Under  the  parental  roof  they  ex- 
press their  desires  in  an  authoritative  tone, 
calling  out  disrespectful  exclamations  to  their 
mothers. 

Should  their  requests  meet  with  the  slight- 
est resistance,  they  will  sit  stamping  with 
their  feet,  pounding  with  their  hands,  clamor- 
ing and  screaming,  till  they  obtain  the  de- 
sired object.  The  mothers,  who  have  as 
little  control  over  themselves  as  over  their 
children,  quickly  lose  their  temper,  and  be- 
gin vituperating  their  children  in  language 
of  which  a  very  mild  but  general  form  is, 


Term  dibine  batasen  !    (' '  May  you  sink  under 

the  earth  !")* 

Turkish  children  are  not  favored  with  the 
possession  of  an}'  of  the  instructive  books, 
toy-tools,  games,  etc.,  that  European  ingenu- 
ity lias  invented  for  the  amusement  of  chil- 
dren, and  which  may  be  obtained  at  Con- 
stantinople and  other  cities  of  Turkey  ;  the 
only  playthings  they  possess  are  rattles,  trum- 
pets, a  rude  species  of  doll  (made  of  rag-bun- 
dles), cradles,  and  a  kind  of  polichirwUo,  fash- 
ioned, in  the  most  primitive  manner,  of 
wood,  and  decorated  with  a  coarse  daub  of 
bright-colored  paint,  applied  without  any  re- 
gard to  artistic  effect.  These  are  sometimes 
sold  in  the  chandlers'  shops,  but  are  only  ex- 
posed for  sale  in  large  quantities  during  the 
Bairams,  when  they  make  their  appearance, 
piled  in  heaps  on  a  mat,  in  the  thoroughfares 
nearest  the  mosques 

A  Turkish  child  is  never  known  to  take  a 
cold  bath  in  the  morning  ;  is  never  made  to 
take  a  constitutional  walk,  or  to  have  his 
limbs  developed  by  the  healthy  exercise  of 
gymnastics.  No  children's  libraries  exist,  to 
stimulate  the  desire  for  study — for  which,  it 
is  true,  little  taste  is  displayed.  Among  the 
higher  classes  an  unnaturally  sedate  deport- 
ment is  expected  from  children  when  in  the 
presence  of  their  father  and  his  guests,  be- 
fore whom  they  present  themselves  with  the 
serious  look  and  demeanor  of  old  men,  make 
a  deep  salaam,  and  sit  at  the  end  of  the  room 
with  folded  hands,  answering  with  extreme 
deference  the  questions  addressed  to  them. 
Out  of  sight,  and  in  the  company  of  menials, 
they  have  no  restraint  placed  upon  them,  use 
the  most  licentious  language,  and  play  nasty 
practical  jokes  ;  or  indulge  in  teasing  the 
women  of  the  harem  to  any  extent ;  receiv- 
ing all  the  time  the  most  indecent  encourage- 
ment, both  by  word  and  action,  from  the 
parasites,  slaves,  and  dependants  hanging 
about  the  house.  No  regular  hours  are  kept 
for  getting  up  and  going  to  bed.  The  chil- 
dren, even  when  sleepy,  obstinately  refuse  to 
go  to  their  beds,  and  prefer  to  stretch  them- 
selves on  a  sofa,  whence  they  are  carried  fast 
asleep.  On  rising,  no  systematic  attention  is 
paid  either  to  their  food,  ablutions,  or  dress- 
ing. A  wash  is  given  to  their  faces  and 
hands  ;  but  their  heads,  not  regularly  or  daily 
combed,  generally  afford  shelter  to  creeping 
guests,  that  can  only  be  partially  dislodged 
at  the  Hammam. 

Their  dress,  much  neglected,  is  baggy  and 
slovenly  at  all  times  ;  but  it  becomes  a  ridic- 
ulous caricature  when  copied  from  the  Euro- 
pean fashion  ;  shoes  and  stockings  are  not 
much  used  in  the  house,  but  when  worn,  the 
former  are  unfastened,  and  the  latter  kept  up 
by  rags  hanging  down  their  legs.  A  gedjlik 
(night-dress)  of  printed  calico,  an  intari 
(dressing-gown),  ayak-kab  (trousers),  and  a 
libarde  (quilted  jacket),  worn  in  the  house, 
do  duty  both  by  night  and  day. 

Children  are  allowed  to  breakfast  on  any- 
thing they  find  in  the  larder  or  buy  from  the 
hawkers  of  cakes  in  the  streets. 

No  person  exercising  the  functions  of  gov- 
erness, nursery  governess,  or  head  nurse,  ex- 
ists in  harems.  There  is  no  reserve  of  lan- 
guage observed  before  young  girls,  who  are 
allowed  to  listen  to  conversations  in  which 
spades  are  very  decidedly  called  spades.  The 
absence  of  refined  subjects  naturally  leads  the 
tone  of  these  conversations,  at  times,  to  so 
low  a  level  as  to  render  its  sense  quite  unin- 
telligible to  the  European  listener,  though  it 
is  perfectly  understanded  of  the  Turkish 
maiden. 

Turks  sometimes  have  hodjas  as  tutors  for 
their  sons  ;  but  these  are  not  always  profes- 
sional instructors  of  youth,  and  their  super- 
vision over  their  pupils  seldom  extends  be- 


*  H Bey,  on  visiting  London,  finding  to  his  sur- 
prise that  "sinking  underground"  entered  into  the 
routine  of  every-day  Mfe,  on  returning  home,  said  to 
his  mother,  "  Bonovm  yeriii  dilniieh  batunrn&h?  Ben 
batata  da  chiktum.  ("Have  you  ever  sunk  under- 
ground ?    1  have  done  so,  and  risen  again.") 


yond  the  hours  of  study.  The  hodjas,  be- 
longing to  religious  orders,  are  grave,  sanc- 
timonious persons  ;  having  little  in  common 
with  their  pupils,  who  find  it  difficult  to  ex- 
change ideas  with  them,  and  thus  to  benefit1 
in  a  general  way  by  their  teaching.  Poor 
effencha  or  kyatihs  are  sometimes  engaged  to 
fill  the  office  of  tutors,  but  their  inferior  po- 
sition in  the  house  deprives  them  of  any  seri- 
ous control  over  their  charges.  The  dadi, 
appointed  to  attend  upon  the  child  from  its 
earliest  infancy,  plays  a  great  part  during  its 
youthful  career  ;  her  charge,  seldom  separat- 
ed from  her,  will,  if  she  be  good  and  respect- 
able, benefit  by  her  care  ;  but  if  site  lie  the 
reverse.  Iter  influence  cannot  be  anything  but 
prejudicial,  especially  to  boys,  whose  moral 
education,  entirely  neglected  at  this  stage, 
receives  a  vicious  impulse  from  this  associ- 
ate. The  fact  that  the  dadi' a  being  the  prop- 
erty of  his  parents  gives  him  certain  rights 
over  her  is  early  understood  and  often  abused 
by  the  boy. 

I  have  seen  an  instance  of  the  results  of 
these  boyish  connections  in  the  house  of  a 
Pasha,  who,  as  a  child,  had  formed  a  strong 
attachment  for  his  dadi,  and,  yielding  to  her 
influence,  had  litter  been  induced  to  marry 
her,  although  tit  the  time  she  must  have  been 
more  than  double  his  age.  When  I  made 
her  acquaintance  she  was  an  old  woman,  su- 
perseded by  four  young  companions,  whose 
lives  she  made  as  uncomfortable  as  she  could 
by  way  of  retaliation  for  the  pain  her  hus- 
band's neglect  was  causing  her.  The  fourth 
and  youngest  of  these  wives,  naturally  the 
favorite,  nearly  paid  with  her  life  for  the 
affection  she  was  supposed  to  have  diverted 
from  the  Bash  Kadin  (first  wife) ;  for  the 
quondam  dadi,  taking  advantage  of  her  rival's 
unconsciousness  whilst  indulging  in  a  siesta, 
tried  to  pour  quicksilver  into  her  ears.  The 
fair  slumberer  fortunately  awoke  in  time  ; 
and  the  attempted  crime  was  passed  over  in 
consideration  of  the  culprit's  past  maternal 
services,  and  of  the  position  she  then  held. 

Next  to  the  important  functions  of  dadi 
those  of  lala  must  be  mentioned.  He  is  a 
male  slave  into  whose  care  the  children  of 
both  sexes  are  intrusted  when  out  of  the 
harem.  He  has  to  amuse  them,  take  them 
out  walking,  and  to  school  and  back.  His 
rank,  however,  does  not  separate  him  from 
his  fellow  servants,  with  whom  he  still  lives 
in  common  ;  and  when  the  children  come 
to  him,  he  takes  them  generally  first  to  their 
father's  apartment,  and  then  into  the  ser- 
vants' hall,  where  they  arc  allowed  to  witness 
the  most  obscene  practical  jokes,  often  played 
upon  the  children  themselves  ;  and  to  listen 
to  conversations  of  the  most  revolting  nature, 
only  to  be  matched  I  should  think  in  west- 
ern Europe  among  the  most  degraded  in- 
habitants of  the  lowest  slums.  This  is  one 
of  those  evil  customs  that  cannot  be  other 
than  ruinous  to  the  morality  of  Turkish  chil- 
dren, who  thus  from  an  early  age  get  initi- 
ated into  subjects  and  learn  language  of  which 
they  should  for  years  be  entirely  ignorant. 

The  girls  are  allowed  free  access  into  the 
selamlik  up  to  the  time  they  are  considered 
old  enough  to  wear  the  veil  ;  which,  once 
adopted,  must  exclude  a  female  from  further 
intercourse  with  the  men's  side  of  the  house. 
The  shameful  neglect  girls  experience  during 
childhood  leaves  them  alone  to  follow  their 
own  instincts  ;  alternately  spoiled  and  rudely 
chastened  by  uneducated  mothers,  they  grow 
up  in  hopeless  ignorance  of  every  branch  of 
study  that  might  develop  their  mental  or 
moral  faculties  and  fit  them  to  fulfil  the  du- 
ties that  must  in  time  devolve  upon  them. 

I  am  glad  to  say  that,  in  this  respect,  a 
change  for  the  better  is  taking  place  at  Con- 
stantinople  :  the  education  of  the  girls 
among  the  higher  classes  is  much  improved  ; 
elementary  teaching,  besides  instruction  in 
music  and  needlework,  is  given  to  them  ;  and 
a  few  are  even  so  highly  favored  as  to  have 
European  governesses,  who  find  their  pupils 
wanting  neither  in  intelligence  nor  in  good- 


y^amamm* 


56 


will  to  profit  by  their  instruction.  I  have 
known  Turkish  girls  speak  foreign  lan- 
guages, but  the  number  of  such  accom- 
plished young  ladies  is  limited,  owing  partly 
to  the  dislike  which  even  the  most  enlight- 
ened Turks  feel  to  allowing  their  daughters 
auy  rational  independence  ;  for  the  girls,  they 
say,  are  destined  to  a  life  of  harem  restraint 
with  which  they  would  hardly  feel  better 
satisfied  if  they  had  once  tasted  of  liberty  ; 
their  life  would  only  be  less  happy,  instead  of 
happier  ;  ignorance  in  their  case  being  bliss, 
it  would  be  folly  to  make  them  wise  ! — If 
true,  only  another  argument  for  the  over- 
throw of  the  system. 

Some  time  ago,  when  at  Constantinople,  I 
visited  an  old  friend,  a  Christian  by  birth, 
but  the  wife  of  a  Pasha.  This  lady,  little 
known  to  the  beau  monde  of  Stamboul,  a 
most  ladylike,  sweet  woman,  was  married 
when  her  husband  was  a  student  in  Europe 
and  she  a  school-girl.  She  has  held  fast  to 
her  religion,  and  her  enlightened  husband  has 
never  denied  her  the  rights  of  her  European 
liberty  ;  though,  when  in  the  capital,  she 
wears  the  yashmak,  out  of  conveyance.  Her 
children  are  Mohammedans.  The  daughter, 
now  a  young  lady  of  eighteen,  a  most  charm- 
ing, accomplished  girl,  is  justly  named  "  The 
Budding  Rose  of  the  Bosphorus."  Some 
Turkish  ladies  acquainted  with  this  family 
spoke  of  it  to  me  as  an  example  of  perfection 
worthy  of  study  and  imitation.  A  truly  po- 
etical attachment  binds  the  mother  and 
daughter  together,  and  finding  no  conge 
niality  in  their  Mohammedan  acquaintances, 
in  the  simplicity  of  their  retired  life  they 
have  become  all  in  all  to  each  other,  and  are 
doted  upon  by  the  father  and  brother.  It 
was  very  pleasant  to  look  upon  the  harmony 
that  existed  in  this  family,  notwithstanding 
the  wide  differences  in  the  customs  and  re- 
ligions of  its  members.  For  many  years  I 
had  lost  sight  of  my  friends,  and  at  length 
found  them  caged  up  in  one  of  the  lovely  vil- 
las on  the  Bosphorus  ;  the  mother  now  a 
woman  of  forty,  the  daughter  a  slim,  bright 
fairy. 

After  the  surprise  caused  by  my  visit  and 
the  friendly   greetings  were  over,  Madame 

B ,  full  of  delight  and  happiness,  related  to 

me  the  engagement  of  her  daughter  to  one  of 
the  wealthiest  and  most  promising  grandees 
of  LaJeune  Turquie,  who,  having  just  com- 
pleted his  studies  in  Paris,  was  expected  in  a 
few  days  to  come  and  claim  her  as  his  bride. 
She  was  to  dwell  beneath  the  paternal  roof, 
and  I  was  taken  to  visit  the  apartments  that 
had  been  prepared  for  the  young  couple. 
They  were  most  exquisitely  furnished,  with 
draperies  of  straw-colored  satin,  richly  em- 
broidered by  the  deft  fingers  of  the  ladies. 
The  mother,  her  face  beaming  with  joy,  said 
tome,  "Am  I  not  happy  in  marrying  my 
daughter  to  an  enlightened  young  Turk, 
who,  there  is  every  reason  to  expect,  will 
prove  as  good  and  affectionate  a  husband  to 
her  as  mine  has  been  to  me  ?" 

The  young  lady  had  known  her  affianced 
before  his  departure  for  Paris  ;  full  of  faith 
and  hope,  she  nourished  a  deep  love  for  him, 
and,  in  the  innocent  purity  of  her  heart,  felt 
sure  he  responded  to  it. 

I  have  not  seen  these  ladies  since,  but  a 
short  time  after  my  visit  I  was  deeply  grieved 
to  hear  that  this  seemingly  well  •  adapted 
match  was  broken  off  in  consequence  of  the 
young  Bey  having  returned  accompanied  by 
a  French  ballet-dancer,  whom  he  declared  he 
did  not  intend  to  give  up. 

I  have  heard  that,  generally  speaking, 
Paris  is  not  the  most  profitable  school  for 
young  Turks.  Attracted  by  the  immense 
amount  of  pleasure  and  amusement  there 
afforded  to  strangers,  they  become  negligent 
students,  waste  their  time  and  money  in 
profitless  pursuits,  keep  company  of  the  most 
doubtful  kind,  are  led  to  contract  some  of  the 
worst  Parisian  habits,  and  return  to  their 
country,  having  acquired  little  more  than  a 
superficial  varnish    of   European   manners. 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 

These  they  proudly  display  ;  but  at  heart 
they  profoundly  despise  the  nation  whose 
virtues  they  failed  to  acquire,  whilst  they 
plunged  freely  into  those  vices  which  were 
more  congenial  to  their  habits  and  nature. 

Those  who  are  acquainted  with  Stamboul 
life  may  remember  the  sensation  caused  in 
1873  by  a  band  of  young  Turkish  ruffians, 
who  bore  the  name  of  Tussun,  whose  de- 
clared object  was  to  initiate  the  youth  of  both 
sexes  into  those  dark  practices  of  the  Asiatics 
still  so  prevalent  among  the  upper  classes. 
This  abominable  society  was  so  strong  that 
the  police  were,  for  a  time,  powerless  against 
it.  The  chief  of  these  vagabonds  was  stated 
to  be  the  son  of  a  member  of  the  Sultan's 
household,  and  the  other  young  men  were 
connected  with  some  high  Turkish  families. 
It  was  only  by  the  most  active  interference 
of  the  minister  of  justice  that  this  fraternity 
was  finally  put  down. 

One  of  the  great  drawbacks  the  progress 
of  education  meets  with  among  the  Turks  is 
the  insurmountable  repulsion  Mohammedans 
feel  to  freeing  this  movement  from  the  fetters 
of  religion.  The  most  enlightened  of  Turks 
will  be  found  wanting  in  good-will  and  as- 
sistance when  the  question  is  that  of  promot- 
ing the  current  of  liberal  ideas  at  the  cost  of 
the  religious  dogmas  which  regulate  all  his 
social  habits  ;  and  these  retrograde  notions 
cannot  be  openly  repudiated  even  by  those 
who  profess  no  belief  in  the  religion  upon 
which  they  are  supposed  to  be  founded. 
These  sceptical  Turks,  possessing  no  distinct 
conception  of  any  philosophical  school  whose 
aim  should  be  to  replace  prejudice  and  super- 
stition by  the  propagation  of  free  thought, 
based  upon  morality  and  scientific  research, 
merely  become  reckless  and  unprincipled, 
but  are  of  no  more  use  than  the  bigoted  party 
in  helping  forward  an  undenominational 
movement  in  education. 

Until  quite  recent  times  the  only  public 
institutions  for  the  education  of  the  Turkish 
youth  were  those  common  to  all  Moslem 
countries,  the  Malialle  Mektebs,  or  primary 
schools,  and  the  Medresses,  or  Mosque-Col- 
leges. The  Mektebs  are  to  Turkey,  though  in 
a  still  more  inefficient  way,  what  the  old 
National  Schools  were  to  England.  They 
are  the  universal,  and  till  recently  the  only 
existing,  instruments  of  rudimentary  educa- 
tion for  the  children  of  both  sexes  of  all 
classes.  Like  the  old  -  fashioned  National 
Schools,  religion  is  the  main  thing  taught ; 
only  in  the  Turkish  Mektebs  religion  is  pretty 
nearly  the  one  thing  taught.  The  little 
Turkish  boys  and  girls  are  sent  to  these 
schools  at  a  very  early  age,  and  pay  for  their 
instruction  the  nominal  fee  of  one  piastre 
(2id.)  a  month.  Great  ceremony  attends  the 
child's  first  entrance.  Its  hands  are  dyed 
with  henna  ;  its  head  decorated  with  jewels  ; 
and  it  is  furnished  with  a  new  suit  of  clothes, 
and  an  expensive  bag  called  Soupara,  in 
which  the  Mus-haf,  or  copy  of  the  Koran,  is 
carried.  The  father  of  the  child  leads  it  to 
the  Mekteb,  where  it  recites  the  Moslem 
creed  to  the  Hodja,  kisses  his  hand,  and  joins 
the  class.  The  other  children,  after  the  re- 
cital of  prayers,  lead  the  novice  home,  headed 
by  the  Hodja,  who  chants  prayers  all  the 
way  along,  the  children  joining  in  the  re- 
sponse of  Arnin  !  Amin  !  Refreshments  and 
ten  paras  (a  halfpenny)  are  offered  to  each 
child  by  the  parents  of  the  new  scholar,  on 
receipt  of  which  they  make  a  rush  into  the 
street  and  .throng  round  the  trays  of  the 
numerous  hawkers  who  collect  round  the 
door  on  such  occasions.  This  ceremony  is 
repeated  on  the  first  examination,  for  which 
the  Hodja  receives  £1  and  a  suit  of  linen 
The  teaching  in  these  schools  was,  until  re- 
cently, strictly  limited  to  lessons  from  the 
Koran.  The  scholars,  amounting  in  num- 
ber sometimes  to  one  or  two  hundred,  are 
closely  packed  together  in  a  school-room 
which  is  generally  the  dependence  of  the 
Mosque,  kneeling  in  rows,  divided  into  tens 
by  monitors  who  superintend  their  lessons, 


they  learn  partly  from  the  book  and  partly 
by  rote,  all  reading  out  the  lesson  at  the  same 
time,  and  swaying  their  bodies  backwards 
and  forwards.  An  old  Hodja,  with  his  as- 
sistant, sits  cross-legged  on  a  mat  at  one  end 
of  the  room,  before  the  chest  which  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  desk  and  bookcase. 
With  the  cane  of  discipline  in  one  hand,  a 
pipe  in  the  other,  and  the  Koran  before  him, 
the  old  pedagogue  listens  to  and  directs  the 
proceedings  of  the  pupils.  Unruly  children 
are  subjected  to  the  punishment  of  the  cane 
and  the  Falakka,  a  kind  of  wooden  hobble 
passed  over  the  ankle  of  the  culprit,  who 
sometimes  has  to  return  home  wearing  this 
mark  of  disgrace.  The  Koran  lessons,  de- 
livered in  Arabic,  are  gibberish  to  the  chil- 
dren, unless  explained  by  the  master  ;  and 
the  characters  used  in  Koran  writing  are  not 
well  adapted  for  teaching  ordinary  Turkish 
handwriting. 

It  is  easily  seen  what  ample  room  for  im- 
provement there  is  in  these  establishments, 
where  Moslems  spend  the  best  part  of  their 
childhood.  Religion,  taught  in  every-day 
language,  simplified  and  adapted  to  the  un- 
derstanding of  children,  together  with  the 
rudiments  of  ordinary  knowledge,  would  lay 
the  foundation  of  a  wiser  and  more  profitable 
system  of  education  than  all  these  many 
years  lost  iu  poring  over  theological  abstrac- 
tions, comprehensible  glimpses  of  which  can 
only  be  conveyed  to  such  young  minds  by 
the  explanations  of  the  Hodja,  who  is  sure 
to  dwell  upon  the  most  dogmatic  and  conse- 
quently the  most  intolerant  points  of  Islam, 
and  thus  sows  among  the  children  ready- 
made  ideas,  the  pernicious  seed  of  that  fa- 
naticism which  finds  its  early  utterance  in 
the  words  Kafir  and  O'iaour  (infidel),  and 
prompts  the  little  baby  to  measure  himself 
with  his  gray-bearded  Christian  neighbor,  and 
in  the  assurance  of  superior  election  raise  his 
hand  to  cast  the  stone  of  ineradicable  con- 
tempt. 

The  finished  scholars  from  these  institutions 
may  become  Hodjas  themselves,  acquiring, 
if  they  choose,  a  knowledge  of  writing. 
Such  is  the  system  of  primary  education 
which  has  existed  in  Turkey  ever  since  the 
Conquest.  Happily  this  century  has  seen 
some  improvements,  not  so  much  in  the 
Mektebs  as  in  the  introduction  among  them 
of  Government  (so  to  say,  Board)  Schools  on 
improved  principles. 

No  era  of  the  Ottoman  history  presents  a 
more  dismal  picture  of  ignorance  and  inca- 
pacity than  the  close  of  the  last  century. 
The  country  appeared  to  be  crumbling  to 
pieces  ;  and  the  nation  seemed  lost  in  the  two 
extremes  of  apathy  and  fanaticism.  Sultan 
Mahmoud's  sagacious  mind  saw  wherein  the 
evil  lay,  and  attempted  to  remedy  it  by  es- 
tablishing schools  more  after  the  European 
model,  and  by  this  means  spreading  among 
his  people  the  liberal  ideas  that  alone  could 
civilize  and  regenerate  them.  The  difficul- 
ties he  encountered  in  his  praiseworthy  and 
untiring  efforts  to  bring  about  this  change 
were  great  and  varied.  Nevertheless,  he 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  few  schools  in  the 
capital,  which  have  served  as  bases  to  those 
that  were  instituted  by  his  son  and  successor 
Abdul-Medjid.  These  latter  consisted  first 
of  Rushdiyes,  or  preparatory  schools,  where 
boys  of  all  classes  are  admitted  on  leaving 
the  Mektebs,  and  are  gratuitously  taught 
Turkish,  elementary  arithmetic,  the  history 
of  their  country,  and  geography. 

Next  to  these  establishments  come  the 
Idadiyes,  or  more  advanced  preparatory 
schools,  where  boys  are  also  admitted  gratui- 
tously, and  remain  from  three  to  five  years  ; 
they  are  instructed  in  the  studies  adapted  to 
the  careers  they  are  destined  to  follow  in  the 
finishing  medical,  military,  marine,  and  artil- 
lery schools  to  which  they  gain  admittance 
on  leaving  the  Idadiyes. 

Besides  these  schools  the  capital  contains 
some  others  of  equal  importance,  such  ;is  a 
school  for  forming  professors  for  the  Rush- 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


57 


diyes,  a  school  teaching  foreign  languages  to 
some  of  the  employes  of  the  Porte,  a  forest 
school,  and  one  for  mechanics. 

The  original  organization  of  all  these  insti- 
tutions is  Baid  to  be  good,  but  unfortunately 
the  regulations  are  not  carried  out.  The  ab- 
sence of  a  proper  system  of  control  and  strict 
discipline,  a  want  of  attention  on  the  part  of 
the  Students,  and  of  competence  on  that  of 
the  professors,  are  the  chief  characteristics 
of  most  of  them. 

In  addition  to  the  educational  establish- 
ments of  the  capital,  Rushdiyes  have  also 
been  opened  in  all  large  country  towns,  and 
in  some  even  Idadiyes.  It  is,  perhaps, 
hardly  necessary  to  state  that  there  are  uo 
schools  of  any  hind  in  country  villages  ;  the 
three  It's  are  there  regarded  as  wholly  super- 
fluous luxuries. 

Had  the  Turks  followed  up  more  system- 
atically the  movement  thus  happily  begun  ; 
had  it  become  general  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  been  marked  by  proper  care  and 
perseverance,  many  of  the  evils  which  now 
beset  Turkey  might  perhaps  have  been 
avoided.  The  contempt  for  the  Christian 
generally  displayed  by  the  Moslem,  engen- 
dered through  ignorance  and  fanaticism, 
might  have  been  softened  into  tolerance,  and 
a  more  friendly  feeling  might  have  been  cre- 
ated between  them. 

Education,  however,  received  another  im- 
petus during  the  administration  of  Ali  and 
Fouad  Pashas,  who  by  their  united  efforts 
succeeded  in  creating  new  schools  and  slightly 
improving  those  already  existing. 

Most  of  these  institutions,  excepting  the 
medical  college,  were  formerly  open  to  Chris- 
tian children  only  in  name  ;  under  Ali  and 
Fouad  they  became  open  in  reality  to  a  few, 
•who  took  their  places  by  the  side  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan boys. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Turkish 
schools  in  the  town  of  Salonika,  which  con- 
tains about  15,000  Mohammedan  inhabitants, 
including  2500  Dulmes,  or  Jews  converted 
to  the  faith  of  the  Prophet : — seven  Mahalle 
Me'debs,  or  "  National  "  schools  ;  one  Mekteb 
Riixlidiye,  or  Government  school ;  one  small 
private  school  for  Turkish  girls,  established 
about  twelve  months  ago  ;  and  two  special 
schools  for  the  Dulmes,  one  for  girls  and 
another  for  boys.  The  Mekteb  Rushdiye  is 
supported  by  the  Government,  and  has  one 
superintendent  and  two  masters,  and  is  at- 
tended by  219  children,  all  day  pupils. 
Teaching  is  divided  into  four  classes  ;  the 
first  comprises  poetry,  the  Turkish,  Arabic, 
and  Persian  languages  ;  the  second,  logic, 
mathematics,  elementary  arithmetic,  and  the 
rudiments  of  geography  ;  the  third,  cosmog- 
raphy, Ottoman  and  universal  history,  writ- 
ing ;  the  fourth,  preparatory  lessons  for  be- 
ginners. 

The  mathematical  and  historical  teaching 
is  very  deficient,  and  the  whole  system  of  in- 
struction needs  much  improvement.  Stu- 
dents on  leaving  this  school  may  enter  the 
Harbiye,  or  military  school,  at  Monastir,  or 
continue  their  studies  at  the  Medreane,  where 
the  Softas  and  Ulema  graduate,  or  may  at- 
tach themselves  to  some  Government  office 
as  unsalaried  Kyatibs,  or  scribes,  called 
Chaouch,  until  a  vacancy  or  some  other 
chance  helps  them  to  a  lucrative  post. 

The  Dulmes,  who  are  found  in  large  num- 
bers only  at  Salonika,  have  of  late  years 
shown  a  great  desire  to  promote  education 
among  both  sexes  of  their  small  but  thriving 
community.  The  course  of  study  followed 
in  their  boys'  school  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  Rushdiye,  and,  of  course,  includes  the 
very  elementary  curriculum  of  the  National 
schools.  It  has  four  classes,  subdivided  each 
into  three  forms  ;  three  masters,  aided  by 
monitors,  superintend  the  studies.  I  visited 
this  school,  and  found  a  great  lack  of  order 
and  discipline.  First-class  boys,  seated  on 
benches  and  before  desks,  were  mixed  up 
with  the  little  ones,  who,  I  was  told,  were 
placed  there  in  order  to  be  broken  in  to  the 


school  routine — a  strange  arrangement,  un 
likely  to  benefit  either  ;  at  least  it  had  been 
better  for  these  mere  infants  to  be  placed  in 
a  class  where  lessons  and  exercises  suited  to 
their  years  were  taught.  Some  of  the  big 
boys  were  examined,  and,  as  far  as  I  was 
able  to  judge,  seemed  well  advanced  in  writ- 
ing and  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Turkish  lan- 
guage, but  they  did  not  appear  equally  well 
versed  in  mathematics  or  the  scientific 
branches  of  study,  which  were  evidently 
taught  in  a  very  elementary  form,  if  one 
might  judge  by  the  simple  questions  put  by 
the  masters.  This  examination  was  con- 
cluded by  the  senior  boys  chanting  iu  chorus 
the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  the 
months  of  the  year  !  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  this  establishment, which 
is  said  to  be  the  best  in  the  town,  was  opened 
only  eighteen  months  ago. 

With  regard  to  the  higher  branches  of 
study,  I  was  far  more  edified  during  an  ex- 
amination of  the  Ruslidiye  and  Harbiye 
schools  at  Adrianople,  where  some  of  the 
pupils  had  produced  well-executed  maps  and 
drawings,  and  had  also  distinguished  them- 
selves in  mathematics  ;  the  schools  of  that 
town  seemed  to  be  of  a  higher  standard  than 
those  of  Salonika,  although,  like  all  Turkish 
schools,  they  left  much  to  be  desired  in  good 
principles,  refinement,  and  general  enlight- 
enment, to  all  of  which  a  marked  disregard 
is  universally  displayed.  The  comparative 
progress  made  in  the  above-mentioned  sub- 
jects should  not,  however,  be  considered  a 
criterion  of  the  cultivation  of  art  and  science 
in  general.  In  spite  of  the  simplicity  with 
which  these  various  brandies  of  science  and 
of  art  may  now  be  taught,  they  are  not  likely 
to  make  much  advancement  among  the  Mo- 
hammedans. These  people  display  an  as- 
tonishing apathy  and  a  total  absence  of  the 
spirit  of  inquiry  and  research  with  regard  to 
everything.  They  confide  the  secrets  of 
nature,  to  the  supreme  care  of  Allah,  and 
deem  it  superfluous  to  trouble  themselves 
with  such  subjects  beyond  the  extent  re- 
quired for  their  common  wants.  All  mental 
effort  is  in  direct  opposition  to  the  listless 
habits  of  the  Turk,  and,  since  he  is  not  the 
man  to  run  against  the  will  of  Providence, 
who  fashioned  his  disposition,  is  therefore 
seldom  attempted.  Professional  men  are  rare 
among  them,  and  such  as  there  are  can  only 
be  ranged  in  the  class  of  imitative  mediocri- 
ties, who  have  not  the  genius  to  improve  or 
develop  any  useful  branch  of  science. 

The  Dulme  girls'  school  of  Salonika  was 
held  in  a  house  containing  a  number  of  small 
rooms,  in  which  the  pupils  were  huddled 
together.  One  of  these  rooms  was  fitted  up 
with  desks  and  benches  that  might  have  ac- 
commodated about  thirty  children  ;  when  I 
entered  all  the  pupils  were  doing  needle- 
work ;  Shemshi  Effendi,  the  director,  a 
young  man  of  some  enterprise  and  capacity 
and  a  good  deal  of  intelligence,  led  the  way 
and  ordered  all  to  stand  up  and  salaam  ;  a 
lesson  I  hope  they  will  condescendingly  bear 
in  mind  and  practise  later  on  in  life  in  their 
intercourse  with  Christians.  They  were 
learning  plain  sewing,  crochet,  tapestry,  and 
other  ornamental  work,  taught  by  a  neat- 
looking  Greek  schoolmistress.  A  good  many 
of  the  pupils  were  grown-up  girls,  who  sat 
with  veils  on.  The  master  pointed  them  out 
to  me,  saying  that  most  of  those  young  ladies 
were  engaged  to  be  married  ;  "I  have  not, 
therefore,  attempted  to  teach  them  reading  or 
writing,  as  they  are  too  old  to  learn,  and 
their  time  here  is  very  short,  but  with  the 
little  ones  I  hope  in  time  to  do  more. ' '  Some 
of  the  latter  were  examined  before  me  in 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  in  which 
they  seemed  to  have  got  on  very  fairly  con- 
sidering the  short  time  the}'  had  attended  the 
school  and  the  utter  want  of  order  and  sys- 
tem prevailing  iu  it. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  girls  was 
that  of  negligent  untidiness  ;  their  hair  was 
uncombed,  and  most  of  them  were  seated  on 


the  ground  working,  with  a  total  absence  of 
that  good  breeding  which  was  to  be  expected 
in  a  well-regulated  school  for  girls  of  their 
age  and  condition. 

Defective  as  this  establishment  is,  it  is  de- 
serving of  praise  and  encouragement  as  a 
first  attempt  which  may  lead  to  a  higher 
standard  of  education  among  Turkish  wo- 
men. Perhaps  some  of  the  institutions  at 
Stamboul,  though  now  greatly  improved,  had 
no  higher  origin.  Conversing  lately  about 
these  with  an  intelligent  Turk,  I  was  assured 
that  some  of  the  young  Turkish  girls  had  so 
much  profited  by  the  education  afforded  in 
them  as  to  have  made  great  progress  in  com- 
position and  even  novel-writing,  an  unpre- 
cedented event  in  the  lives  of  the  ladies  of  this 
nation  !  Some  have  devoted  themselves  to- 
the  study  of  French,  and  have  translated  one 
or  two  little  French  works  into  Turkish. 
One-of  these  institutions  has  now  become  a 
training  college  for  teachers,  who  tire  sent  as 
mistresses  into  other  schools. 

The  Turkish  girls'  school  of  Salonika  is 
attended  by  forty-eight  pupils,  superintended 
by  one  master,  and  a  Greek  schoolmistress 
for  needlework.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  that  the  instruction  afforded  is  very  de- 
fective, and  can  be  of  little  practical  use  to 
young  girls  who  often,  after  a  few  years  of 
childhood,  leave  when  they  attain  the  age  of 
ten  or  eleven,  just  when  their  young  minds 
are  beginning  to  take  in  what  is  taught  them. 
However,  a  little  is  always  better  than  noth- 
ing, and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Salonika 
girls'  schools  will  pave  the  way  to  more 
effective  means  of  teaching. 

Excepting  one  or  two  schools  founded  by 
Midhat  Pasha,  in  the  vilayet  of  the  Danube, 
no  other  Moslem  girls'  schools  but  these  at 
Stamboul  and  Salonika  exist  in  Turkey.  It 
must  be  the  vegetating  existence  of  these  few 
establishments  that  has  caused  the  flowing 
pen  of  one  writer  on  Bulgaria  to  scatter  girls' 
schools  profusely  all  over  the  country,  plac- 
ing one  even  in  the  remotest  village  of  the 
Balkans  ;  in  all  these  schools,  according  to 
him,  girls  are  everywhere  taught  to  read  and 
write  !  The  statement  is,  unfortunately, 
only  another  proof  of  the  accuracy  of  the  say- 
ing, that  a  thing  may  be  too  good  to  be  true. 

The  foundation  of  the  Lyceum  at  Constan- 
tinople, decided  upon  in  18CS,  was  due  to 
Ali  and  Fouad  Pashas.  The  object  of  this 
institute  was  to  spread  knowledge  and  edu- 
cation throughout  the  country,  irrespective 
of  creed  and  nationality,  and  thus  to  attempt 
to  break  through  the  mischievous  routine  of 
separate  education,  and  to  bring  together  all 
the  youth  of  Turkey  with  the  view  to  estab- 
lishing better  relations  between  the  different 
races,  creeds,  and  parties.  The  task  was  not 
an  easy  one.  The  history  of  the  opposition 
encountered  by  the  director  and  professors 
at  the  opening  of  the  college  will  give  a 
slight  idea  of  the  difficulties  and  obstacles 
the  Government  itself  meets  with  in  the  man- 
agement of  its  subjects. 

One  hundred  and  fifty  purses  were  voted 
for  the  Lyceum,  to  bo  expended  for  the  ben- 
efit of  all  Ottoman  subjects,  whether  Mos- 
lems, Catholic  or  Gregorian  Armenians, 
Roman  Catholics,  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  or 
Jews.  Foreign  subjects  were  only  admitted 
on  the  payment  of  fees. 

It  was  intended  to  establish  branches  of 
the  Lyceum  in  the  principal  towns,  but  this 
project  was  soon  given  up.  The  adminis- 
tration, as  well  as  the  direction  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  studies,  was  confided  to  French 
functionaries,  chosen  by  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  in  France,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  Turkish  Minister  of  the  same 
department.  The  lessons  were  to  be  given 
in  French,  and  comprised  literature,  histo- 
ry, geography,  elementary  mathematics,  and 
physical  science.  The  Arabic,  Persian,  and 
Turkish  languages  were  to  be  taught  by 
Turkish  professors.  Greek  and  Latin  were 
to  be  taught,  partly  to  facilitate  the  acquisi- 
tion of  a  knowledge  of  scientific  terms,  and 


58 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


partly  because  Greek  was  of  daily  utility  to 
the  greater  part  of  the  students. 

The  Mohammedan  religious  instruction 
was  confided  to  an  Imam,  but  the  spirit  of 
tolerance  had  gained  sufficient  ground  in  the 
customs  of  the  establishment  to  allow  its 
members  to  practise  their  different  creeds  at 
will  amidst  their  comrades,  and  it  is  said  to 
have  been  a  most  interesting  sight  to  witness 
their  devotions. 

In  spite  of  (or  rather  on  account  of)  the 
liberality  and  tolerance  of  the  original  bases 
of  this  institute,  and  the  constant  endeavor 
of  the  directors  to  accommodate  these  bases 
as  much  as  possible  to  the  habits  and  ideas  of 
the  members  of  the  different  races  there  rep- 
resented, none  seemed  to  feel  the  satisfaction 
and  content  that  was  expected.  The  Mo- 
hammedans naturally  demanded  that  the 
Koran  laws  and  its  exhortations  regarding 
prayer,  ablutions,  the  fasting  of  Ramazan  by 
day  and  the  feasting  by  night,  should  be  re- 
spected. The  Jews,  rigid  observers  of  their 
traditions,  rebelled  against  the  idea  of  their 
children  being  placed  in  an  institute  directed 
by  Christians,  and  of  their  partaking  in  com- 
mon of  food  that  was  Tourfa,  or  unlawful. 
The  Greeks  followed,  complaining  that  their 
language  was  not  sufficiently  admitted  into 
the" course  of  studies;  and  the  well-to-do 
members  of  that  community  abstained  from 
sending  their  children  there.  The  Roman 
Catholics  had  religious  scruples  caused  by  a 
special  prohibition  of  the  Pope,  and  were  un- 
der pain  of  deprivation  of  the  sacraments  if 
they  placed  their  children  in  an  infidel  in- 
stitution. Armenian  pretension  required 
that  special  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
children  belonging  to  that  community,  and 
the  Bulgarians  demanded  that  a  strict  line 
should  be  drawn  between  their  children  and 
those  of  the  Greeks. 

Next  to  this  came  the  difficulty  about  the 
Day  of  Rest :  the  Turks  claiming  Friday,  the 
Jews  Saturday,  and  the  Christians  Sunday  ; 
allied  to  this  point  of  dispute  was  that  of  the 
observance  of  the  religious  and  national  festi- 
vals, all  falling  on  different  days.  Even  the 
masters  themselves,  Turks,  Armenians,  Eng 
lish  and  Frenchmen,  Greeks  and  Italians,  by 
the  variety  of  nationalities  they  represented, 
still  further  complicated  the  matter. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  a  country  where  ed- 
ucation is  so  expensive  and  so  difficult  to  ob- 
tain as  it  is  in  Turkey,  there  were  not  want- 
ing liberal-minded  people  who  were  willing 
to  pass  over  these  niceties  for  the  sake  of 
the  counterbalancing  advantages ;  and  at 
the  opening  of  the  Lyceum,  147  Mohamme- 
dan, 48  Gregorian  Armenian,  36  Greek,  34 
Jew,  34  Bulgarian,  23  Roman  Catholic,  and 
19  Armenian  Catholic  students  applied  for 
admission,  forming  a  total  of  341. 

At  the  end  of  two  years  their  numbers 
Were  almost  doubled,  for  as  long  as  Ali  and 
Fouad  Pashas  had  the  direction  the  institu- 
tion continued  to  prosper  and  to  give  satis- 
faction to  those  who  liad  placed  their  chil- 
dren in  it ;  but  after  the  death  of  these  true 
benefactors  of  Turkey  everything  changed 
for  the  worse. 

The  French  director,  disgusted  with  the 
intrigues  that  surrounded  him  and  the  inter- 
ference he  then  met  with  in  the  performance 
of  his  functions,  sent  in  his  resignation  and 
returned  to  Villa  Franca ;  and  within  a 
month  109  pupils  were  withdrawn. 

The  post  of  director  was  successively  filled 
by  men  whose  mismanagement  provoked  so 
much  discontent  as  to  cause  the  still  greater 
reduction  in  the  number  of  students  from 
640  to  382. 

The  following  extract  from  an  article  by 
M.  de  Salve  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
loth  Oct.,  1874,  contains  a  pretty  correct  esti- 
mate of  the  talent,  capacity,  and  general 
£ood  conduct  of  the  pupils  that  attended  the 
yceum  : 

"  After  three  years  in  the  month  of  June, 
1871,  eight  pupils  of  the  Lyceum  received  the 
French  deirree  of  Bachdier  des  Sciences  before 


a  French  Commission,  and  in  the  following 
years  similar  results  were  obtained. 

"  When  the  starting-point  is  considered 
and  the  progress  made  reflected  upon,  it  will 
be  admitted  that  it  was  impossible  to  foresee, 
or  hardly  to  hope,  for  success.  The  degree 
that  was  attained  bears  testimony  to  the  value 
and  devotion  of  the  masters  as  much  as  to 
the  persevering  industry  and  good-will  of  the 
pupils.  In  general,  the  progress  made  in  the 
various  branches  of  study,  and  particularly 
in  that  of  the  French  language,  and  in  the 
imitative  art,  has  surpassed  all  our  hopes, 
and  in  this  struggle  of  emulation  between 
pupils  of  such  varied  extractions,  the  most 
laudable  results  have  been  accomplished. 

"We  should  then  be  wrong  In  looking 
upon  the  Eastern  races  as  having  become  in- 
capable of  receiving  a  serious  intellectual 
culture,  and  condemning  them  to  final  and 
fatal  inaction.  It  may  be  interesting  to  know 
which  nationalities  have  produced  the  most 
intelligent  and  best-conducted  pupils.  In 
these  respects  the  Bulgarians  have  always 
held  the  first  rank,  and  after  them  the  Arme- 
nians, then  the  Turks  and  Jews,  and  lastly, 
1  regret  to  say,  the  Roman  Catholics.  The 
Greeks,  in  addition  to  some  good  characters, 
presented  a  great  many  bad  ones." 

The  supremacy  of  the  Bulgarians  is  a  fine 
augury  for  the  coming  state  of  things  ;  and 
that  the  Greeks  and  Roman  Catholics  should 
not  have  greatly  distinguished  themselves 
need  not  surprise  us  ;  for  all  the  children  of 
the  better  classes  of  these  communities  are 
educated  in  schools  kept  by  professors  of 
their  own  persuasion.  One  of  the  reasons 
why  the  Lyceum  has  been  abandoned  by  the 
majority  of  the  Christian  pupils  is  its  re- 
moval to  Stamboul,  which  made  it  very  diffi- 
cult for  their  children  to  attend,  together 
with  the  radical  changes  which  have  taken 
place  in  its  administration  and  in  the  tone, 
which  has  now  become  quite  Turkish. 

In  describing  the  improvements  effected  by 
Ali  and  Fouad  Pashas  upon  the  old  Moslem 
Mekteb,  we  have  been  led  away  from  the 
other  primeval  Moslem  institution,  the 
Medresse,  or  Mosque  College.  These  Med- 
resses, supported  by  the  funds  of  the 
mosques  to  which  they  are  attached,  are  the 
universities  where  the  Sottas  and  Ulema,  and 
lower  down  the  Imams  and  Kyatibs,  study, 
and,  so  to  speak,  graduate.  Tlie  subjects 
taught  are  much  the  same  as  in  the  Medresses 
of  other  Mohammedan  countries.  Language 
and  theology  are  the  main  things  in  the  eye 
of  the  Ulema  (or  Dons)  of  a  Medresse.  Lan- 
guage means  grammar,  rhetoric,  poetry,  cal- 
ligraphy, and  what  not,  in  Arabic,  and 
(though  less  essentially)  in  Persian  and  Turk- 
ish. Theology  includes  the  interpretation 
of  the  Koran  and  traditions  ;  and  when  we 
have  said  that  we  have  said  enough  for  one 
lifetime,  as  every  one  knows  who  knows  any- 
thing of  Arab  commentators  and  traditionists 
and  recommentators  and  traditionists  com- 
mentated. Theology,  it  should  however  be 
added,  of  course  includes  Moslem  law,  since 
both  are  bound  together  in  the  Koran  and  the 
traditions  of  Mohammed.  It  may  easily  be 
conceived  that  the  instruction  in  these  Med- 
resses was  and  is  always  of  a  stiff  conserva- 
tive sort,  not  likely  to  advance  in  any  great 
degree  the  cause  of  general  enlightenment  in 
Turkey.  Still,  since  all  the  scholars  and 
statesmen  of  the  country  were,  until  quite 
lately,  invariably  educated  at  the  Medresses, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  have  done  ser- 
vice in  their  time.  Whatever  historians, 
poets,  or  literary  men  Turkey  can  boast  of 
more  than  a  generation  back,  to  the  Med- 
resses be  the  credit  !  In  the  case  of  states- 
men the  result  of  this  training  has  not  always 
been  very  happy.  It  is  not  satisfactory  to 
know  that  in  quite  recent  times  a  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  (of  the  old  school),  sitting 
upon  a  commission  for  looking  into  the  state 
of  the  schools  of  Turkey,  on  being  shown 
some  maps  and  some  mathematical  problems 
executed  by  the   pupils,   appeared  entirely 


ignorant  of  their  meaning,  and  exclaimed, 
"Life  of  me!  Mathematics,  geography, 
this,  that,  and  the  other,  what  use  is  such 
rubbish  to  us?" 

Now,  however,  the  highest  classes  send 
their  sons  to  Paris  and  elsewhere  to  be  edu- 
cated. The  effect  of  this  training  upon  La 
Jeune  Turquie  I  have  already  noticed.  In 
some  cases  it  must,  nevertheless,  be  admitted 
that  the  Turk  educated  in  Europe  has  really 
made  good  use  of  his  time,  and  lias  raised 
himself,  as  near  as  his  nature  permits,  to  the 
level  of  the  more  civilized  nations  he  has  as- 
sociated with. 

Such  is  the  general  state  of  education  in 
Turkey.  Brought  up,  first  by  an  ignorant 
mother,  then  by  the  little  less  ignorant  llodja 
of  the  Mekteb,  or,  in  rarer  eases,  by  the  well- 
meaning  but  still  incompetent  masters  of  the 
Government  schools,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  ordinary  Turk  is  crafty,  ignorant,  and 
correspondingly  fanatical.  Yet  dark  as  the 
present  position  is,  it  is  better  than  it  was  a 
few  years  ago.  The  efforts  of  Ali  and  Fouad 
Pashas  have  certainly  given  education  a  for- 
ward impulse.  The  advance  has  been  slow, 
but  it  has  been  forward,  not  backward.  In 
this  advance  the  Turks  have  shared  far  less 
than  the  subject  races.  Were  tilings  as  they 
were  two  years  ago,  this  could  hardly  bo 
taken  as  a  hopeful  sign  ;  but,  looking  at  it 
from  the  opposite  point  of  view,  that  the 
Bulgarians  and  Greeks  have  advanced  more 
than  the  Turks,  it  must  be  admitted,  in  the 
new  arrangement  of  the  provinces  now  ne- 
gotiating, that  the  fact  carries  a  bright  ray  of 
hope. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

EDUCATION  AMONG  THE  GREEKS  AND  BUL- 
GARIANS. 

The  Turkish  ConqueBt  and  Greek  Schools— Monas- 
asteries  almost  the  Hole  Preservers  of  Letters— Move- 
ment of  the  Last  Half-Century — Athenian  Teaching 
and  its  Influence  on  Turkey— Education  of  the  Greeks 
at  Constantinople  —  JAvi)p6avva  —  Salonika  Girls' 
Schools— Boys'  Schools— A  Greek  School  based  upon 
Mr.  Herbert  Spencer— The  Past  and  the  Present  of  the 
Greeks — Bulgarian  Ignorance— Birth  of  a  Desire  for 
Knowledge— A  Keport  from  a  Bulgarian  Young  Lady 
—The  First  Bulgarian  Book— Bulgarian  Authors- 
Schools— Church  Supervision— Loyalty  to  the  Sultan 
—Bulgarian  Language— Schoolmasters  and  their  Re- 
forming Influence — Bulgarian  Intelligence — American 
Missionaries. 

It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  immense 
progress  made  by  Greece  during  the  past  half 
century  in  education  would  exercise  no  in- 
fluence upon  the  Greeks  in  Turkey.  The 
people  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  secure  of 
their  own  freedom,  released  from  that  servile 
condition  to  which  centuries  of  oppressive 
misrule  had  reduced  them,  and  become  citi- 
zens of  a  liberty-loving  country,  have  for  the 
past  twenty  years  been  using  every  effort  to 
promote  the  cause  of  liberty  by  the  spread  of 
education  among  their  brethren  still  in  sub- 
jection to  the  Porte.  When  the  Turks  con- 
quered the  Greek  provinces,  they  did  their 
best  to  extinguish  education  among  their 
Christian  subjects  :  the  Greek  schools  were 
suppressed,  new  ones  prohibited,  and  the 
Greek  children  had  to  be  taught  during  the 
night.*  But  the  monasteries,  nests  of  igno- 
rance and  vice  as  they  were,  were  the  princi- 
pal refuges  of  letters.  Scattered  all  over  the 
empire,  they  enjoyed  the  privileges  drawn 
from  the  special  liberty  and  favor  granted  by 
the  wise  Sultan  to  the  Greek  clergy.  This 
was  done  by  the  Sultan  with  the  view  of  ac- 
quiring unlimited  control  over  the  Greek 
rayahs,  by  giving  a  just  sufficient  amount  of 
power  to  a  small  but  influential  body  of  men, 
to  induce  them  to  support  his  designs. 
Mount  Athos,   one  of  these  privileged  asy- 


*  This  is  referred  to  in  the  first  verse  of  a  popular 
song : 

fyeyyapdni  ftov  "kafntpo 
<bt:yyi  fiov  vu\  izpoirartj 
N(i  neyaivu'c  to  axokelo 
Nd  fiaOaivu  ypdfi/iara 
ToO  Ocov  tu  npayfiara 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


59 


lums,  became  a  famous  resort  of  the  retired 
clergy.  A  college  of  some  merit  was  also  es- 
tablished on  this  monastic  spot  for  affording 
secular  instruction  to  Greek  youths.  At 
Phanar,  the  secluded  refuge  of  the  Greek 
noblesse,  in  right  of  their  privileges,  educa- 
tion among  the  higher  classes  was  promoted. 
For  a  long  time  this  was  the  only  place  Con- 
stantinople could  boast  as  supplying  men  of 
letters,  some  of  whom,  being  conversant  with 
foreign  languages,  were  employed  in  Euro- 
pean embassies  as  interpreters.  Within  the 
last  fifty  years  the  educational  movement 
among  the  Greeks  of  Turkey  has  altered  its 
course.  Some  schools  established  in  the 
country  afforded  elementary  instruction  to 
the  children,  but,  for  the  most  part,  they 
were  now  sent  to  Athens  and  Syra  to  com- 
plete their  studies,  where  numerous  schools 
and  colleges  afforded  them  the  means  of  ac- 
quiring a  perfect  knowledge  of  their  own 
language  and  a  tolerably  good  general  edu- 
action.  This  migration,  perseveringly  con- 
tinued for  nearly  thirty  years,  increased  the 
number  of  these  Athenian  and  Syraote  estab- 
lishments, and  the  pecuniary  benefit  they 
derived  from  it  enabled  them  to  perfect  their 
organization.  Politics  and  learning  were 
two  essential  elements  of  education,  which 
the  modern  Greeks  uphold  with  a  tenacity 
worthy  of  final  success.  The  young  Greek 
rayah,  sent  to  Athens,  returns  to  his  home  a 
scholar  and  a  staunch  Philhellene,  burning 
with  an  all-absorbing  desire  to  instil  his  ideas 
and  feelings  into  the  minds  of  his  fellow 
rayahs.  Such  currents  flow  slowly  but 
surely  among  a  population  that,  debased  as 
it  may  be  by  a  foreign  yoke,  has  a  history 
and  literature  of  its  own  to  look  back  to. 
The  first  students  returning  from  Greece  were 
the  pioneers  of  the  immense  progress  that 
education  has  lately  made  among  the  Greeks 
in  Turkey.  None  can  realize  and  testify  to 
tins  better  than  those  who  have  watched  its 
introduction  and  development  in  the  interior. 
As  I  slated  in  another  part  of  thiswork,  even 
the  elite  of  the  Greek  society  of  Broussa 
thirty  years  ago  had  lost  the  use  of  their 
mother- tongue,  replacing  it  by  broken  Turk- 
ish. Since  then,  the  introduction  of  schools 
has  been  the  means  of  restoring  the  use  of 
their  own  language  to  the  great  majority  of 
the  people,  though  one  portion  of  the  town  is 
still  ignorant,  of  it,  in  consequence  of  the 
profitable  occupation  the  silk  factories  afford 
to  girls,  who  are  sent  there  from  a  very  early 
age,  instead  of  going  to  school.  The  inhab- 
itants of  the  surrounding  villages,  in  all  of 
which  Greek  schools  have  now  been  estab- 
lished, have  learnt  their  national  language — 
a  proof  that  although  the  general  attention 
of  the  Greeks  has  naturally  first  been  di- 
rected to  promoting  education  in  Thessaly, 
Macedonia,  and  Epirus,  the  scattered  colo- 
nies left  on  the  Asiatic  side  have  not  been 
altogether  forgotten  or  neglected  ;  thev  have 
now  good  colleges  in  Smyrna,  and  schools  in 
less  important  towns  and  villages. 

The  Greek  village  of  Demerdesh,  between 
Broussa  and  the  seaport  Moudania,  merits 
special  praise  for  the  wonderful  progress, 
both  mental  and  material,  it  has  made.  It  is 
refreshing  to  see  the  intelligent  features  of 
the  inhabitants  of  this  village,  and  their 
independent  and  patriotic  disposition.  One 
thinks  involuntarily  of  some  of  the  ancient 
Greek  colonies  that  from  small  beginnings 
to  great  power  and  created  for  them- 
selves a  noble  history. 

At  Constantinople  the  Greeks  possess  sev- 
eral rapidly  improving  educational  establish- 
ments for  both  sexes.  The  Syllogus,  too,  a 
literaiy  association  for  the  promotion  of 
learning,  has  been  lately  instituted  in  all  the 
large  towns  of  Turkey.  Some  years  ago  I 
was  travelling  with  the  head  mistress  of  the 
girls'  school  at  Epibatae,  in  the  district  of  Sil- 
ivri,  near  Constantinople  —  an  institution 
which  owes  its  origin  and  maintenance  to  the 

fenerosity     and    philanthropy     of     Doctor 
arente  Archegenes,  a  native  of  the  place, 


who,  having  acquired  just  reputation  and 
wealth  in  the  capital,  did  not  forget  his  na- 
tive village,  but  furnished  the  means  for 
building  and  maintaining  a  school  for  girls 
in  1790.  This  mistress  was  a  clever  and 
well-educated  lady  from  Athens,  and  she 
described  to  me  her  pleasure  at  the  quickness 
displayed  by  these  peasant  girls  in  their 
studies.  The  only  drawback,  she  remarked, 
to  this  work  of  progress  is  the  absence  of  a 
similar  establishment  for  the  boys,  who,  all 
charcoal-burners  by  trade,  ignorant  and  un- 
couth, are  rejected  as  husbands  by  the  more 
privileged  sex.  I  believe  since  then  the  evil 
has  been  removed  by  the  establishment  of  a 
boys'  school.  How  much  more  beneficial  to 
humanity  was  the  establishment  of  these  in- 
stitutions than  that  of  the  one  fotmded  by 
Mehemet  Ali  Pasha  of  Egypt  at  Cavalla,  his 
native  place.  Desiring  to  benefit  his  country 
with  some  of  the  wealth  acquired  in  Egypt, 
he  requested  the  people  of  Cavalla  to  choose 
between  a  school  and  a  charitable  establish- 
ment or  Imaret :  the  former  was  meant  to 
impart  light  and  civilization  among  them,  the 
latter  to  furnish  an  abode  for  fanatical  Softas, 
and  daily  rations  of  pilaf  and  bread  for  three 
hundred  individuals.  The  Cavalla  Turks 
did  not  hesitate  between  the  mental  and  ma- 
terial food  ;  and  shortly  after  a  substantial 
edifice  was  erected,  its  perpetual  income 
helping  to  maintain  a  number  of  indolent 
persons  within  its  walls,  and  feed  the  refuse 
of  the  population  that  lazily  lounged  about 
outside,  waiting  for  the  ready  food  that  ren- 
dered labor  unnecessary. 

The  wealthy  Greek  families  at  Constanti- 
nople are  now  giving  special  attention  to  the 
education  of  their  children  ;  the  girls  appear, 
more  especially,  to  have  profited  by  it,  for 
the  Greek  ladies,  as  a  class,  are  clever,  well- 
informed,  and  good  linguists,  well  bred  and 
extremely  pleasant  in  the  intimacy  of  their 
social  circles.  Most  of  them  are  musicians, 
as  the  phrase  is,  some  even  attaining  to  ex- 
cellence. A  French  lady  told  me  she  had 
heard  a  French  ambassador  state  as  his 
opinion  that  the  best  and  most  enlightened 
society  in  the  capital  was  the  Greek  ;  but  it 
was  so  exclusive  that  an  easy  admission  into 
it  was  a  privilege  not  to  be  enjoyed  even  by 
an  ambassador.  I  may  state  that  my  per- 
sonal experience  allows  me  to  coincide  with 
this  view.  The  men,  absorbed  in  business, 
and  perhaps  still  bearing  the  cachet  of  some 
of  those  faults  that  prejudice  is  ever  ready  to 
seize  upon  and  exaggerate,  are  less  refined  and 
agreeable  in  society  than  the  women.  Gifted 
men,  however,  and  men  of  a  high  standard 
of  moral  integrity  and  good  faith,  are  not  rare 
among  them  ;  and  the  munificence  of  such 
men  as  Messrs  Zarifi,  Christaki,  Zographo, 
Baron  Sina,  and  many  others,  in  encouraging 
the  advancement  of  education,  and  helping 
in  the  relief  of  the  poor  in  time  of  want  and 
distress,  has  entitled  them  to  the  gratitude  of 
their  nation. 

Some  time  ago  I  was  invited  to  attend 
the  fivq/ioawa,  an  anniversary  at  the  girls' 
school  at  Salonika,  in  remembrance  of  its 
chief  benefactress  Kyria  Castrio.  A  large 
cake,  iced  and  decorated  with  various  de- 
vices, was  placed  on  a  table  facing  the  por- 
trait of  this  lady,  which,  garlanded  with 
flowers,  appeared  to  look  on  smilingly  and 
contentedly,  encircled  by  a  ring  of  young- 
girls.  The  room  was  densely  crowded  with 
fuests  and  the  relatives  of  the  children, 
resently  a  great  bustle  was  heard,  and  the 

,  crowd  opened  to  give  passage  to  the  digni- 
fied, intellectual-looking  Bishop,  accompa- 
nied by  his  clergy,  who  quietly  walked  up  to 
the  cake,  and  read  mass  over  it  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  soul  of  the  departed  lady.  This 
ceremony  concluded,  he  amiably  shook  hands 
with  some  of  the  company  nearest  to  liim, 

;  and  took  his  seat  at  the  rostrum  used  for 
lectures.  It  was  now  the  turn  of  the  young 
girls  to  express  their  gratitude  to  the  memory 
of  her  to  whose  kind  thought  and  generosity 
they  owed  iu  great  part  the  education  they 


were  receiving.  This  was  conveyed  in  a 
hymn  composed  for  the  occasion,  and  ren- 
dered with  much  feeling  and  expression,  un- 
der the  able  direction  of  a  young  German 
master,  who,  for  the  love  of  the  art  in  gene- 
ral, and  the  Greek  nation  in  particular,  had 
kindly  undertaken  to  give  free  lessons  in 
vocal  music  to  the  girls.  Some  of  the  elder 
girls  looked  very  pretty,  and  all  seemed 
bright  and  intelligent.  The  little  ones,  mus- 
tering in  a  company  of  two  hundred,  were 
next  marched  up  in  a  double  row,  clasping 
each  other  round  the  waist.  It  was  a  pretty 
sight  to  see  these  little  mites  assembled  round 
the  chair  of  the  paternal  Bishop,  keeping 
time  with  their  feet  to  the  tune,  and  singing 
their  little  hymn.  This  interesting  ceremony 
was  concluded  by  a  long  lecture,  from  one 
of  the  masters  of  the  establishment,  delivered 
in  Greek.  The  profound  attention  with 
which  all  listened  to  it  was  a  proof  that  it 
was  understood  and  appreciated.  These 
Mnemosyne  are  held  annually  in  many 
towns,  and  even  in  secluded  villages,  in 
memory  of  charitable  persons  who  have 
founded  or  largely  endowed  their  schools. 

While  on  the  subject  of  the  Salonika  girls' 
school,  I  may  as  well  go  on  with  it,  and  de- 
scribe its  organization,  the  course  of  studies 
followed  in  it,  and  the  immense  benefit  it 
has  proved  to  the  community.  Tedious  as 
such  a  description  is,  it  may  be  useful  in  giv- 
ing an  idea  of  the  many  other  similar  institu- 
tions scattered  throughout  the  country.  The 
building,  formerly  I  believe  a  Turkish  Ko- 
nak,  is  in  itself  rather  dilapidated  :  it  consists 
of  two  spacious  halls,  into  which  open  a  num- 
ber of  class-rooms. 

I  inspected  the  classes,  and  was  much 
pleased  to  find  that  the  teachers  ably  and 
conscientiously  fulfilled  their  duties,  and 
that  the  pupils  apparently  did  them  great 
credit.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  subjects 
taught  by  a  lady  principal  and  two  profes- 
sors : 

Upper  Division. 

I.  Greek. — Translations  of  ancient  Greek 
authors  and  poets,  with  explanations,  gram- 
matical analysis,  and  composition. 

II.  Catechism,  with  due  theological  in- 
struction. 

III.  History  of  Greece. 

IV.  Mathematics,  including  mathematical 
and  geometrical  geography. 

V.  Psychology. 

VI.  Xiaidayuyia. 

VII.  Plain  and  fancy  needlework. 

VIII.  Vocal  music. 

IX.  Physics. 

Middle  Division. 

(Taught  by  lady  principal,  one  mistress,  and 

one  professor.) 

I.  Greek  and  Greek  writers. 

II.  Sacred  history,  and  explanations  of  the 
Gospels. 

III.  Mathematics. 

IV.  Natural  history. 

V.  Political  and  physical  geography. 

VI.  Universal  history. 

VII.  Calligraphy. 

VIII.  Needlework  and  vocal  music. 

Loweu  Division. 

(Taught  by  six  mistresses  and  four   pupil 

teachers.) 

I.  Greek. — Reading,  writing,  modern 
Greek  grammar,  with  explanations  of  mod- 
ern Greek  authors. 

II.  Sacred  history  and  catechism. 

III.  Greek  history. 

IV.  Arithmetic. 

V.  Natural  history. 

VI.  Political  geography,  needlework,  and 
calligraphy. 

The  infant  schools  contained  two  hundred 

scholars,  who  were  seated  on  a  gallery  ;  four 

!  pupil  teachers,  two  on  each  side,  were  keep- 

[  ing  order,  and  the  mistress  was  giving  the 


60 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


lesson  of  the  day,  illustrating  it  by  one,  of 
the  many  colored  pictures  that  decorated  the 
walls  of  the  apartment.  The  lesson,  ex- 
plained by  the  teacher,  is  repeated  by  the 
children  in  chorus,  who  are  afterwards  ques- 
tioned. The  system  followed  in  this  school 
appears  to  me  the  most  successful  and  ap- 
propriate way  of  teaching  young  children, 
whose  minds,  impressed  by  the  object-les- 
sons, and  diverted  by  the  variety  of  the  exer- 
cises they  are  made  to  perform,  are  better 
able  to  understand  and  retain  the  knowledge 
imparted  to  them.  A  lady,  recently  arrived 
from  Europe,  who  takes  a  great  interest  in 
schools,  told  me  that  few  establishments  of 
this  kind  in  Europe  could  boast  of  better  suc- 
cess. 

The  rudiments  of  the  following  lessons  are 
taught  :  Reading  ;  elementary  geography  ; 
history  ;  moral  lessons  ;  object-lessons  ;  in- 
fantile songs  and  games. 

During  our  visit  to  the  girls'  school  we 
stopped  before  each  class,  and  a  few  girls 
were  called  out  and  examined  by  the  master 
or  mistress  presiding  over  their  studies.  All 
these  girls  were  intelligent  in  appearance, 
seemed  well  conversant  with  the  subject  in 
question,  and  were  ready  with  their  answers. 
Arithmetic  and  mathematics  generally  were 
the  only  branches  of  study  in  which  they  ap- 
peared deficient ;  but  on  the  whole  the  in- 
struction (unfortunately  limited  to  the  Greek 
language  for  want  of  funds)  is  excellent. 
The  needlework,  both  plain  and  ornamental, 
is  copied  from  models  brought  from  Paris, 
and  the  girls  show  as  much  skill  in  this  de- 
partment as  they  do  aptitude  for  study  in 
others. 

I  questioned  the  directress  on  the  general 
conduct  and  morality  of  the  girls,  and  she 
gave  me  the  best  account  of  both.  No  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  the  rich  and  poor  ; 
they  sit  side  by  side  in  the  same  class,  a  cus- 
tom which,  in  countries  where  education  is 
more  developed,  would  be  intolerable,  but 
which,  for  the  present,  in  a  place  where  class 
distinctions  are  not  so  great,  tends  to  im- 
prove the  manners  of  the  lower  without  pre- 
judice to  those  of  the  upper.  The  opinion 
of  the  school-mistress  was,  that  the  girls  of 
Salonika,  whilst  more  docile  and  more  easily 
managed,  were  not  less  intelligent  than  the 
Athenian  girls,  whose  more  independent 
spirit  often  occasioned  trouble  in  the 
schools. 

Prom  this  establishment  has  been  formed 
a  training  school  for  girls  who  wish  to  be- 
come school-mistresses  ;  six  professors  in- 
struct in  the  following  subjects  : 

I.  Greek. 

II.  Universal  history. 

III.  Mathematics  (including  arithmetic  and 
geometry). 

IV.  Physics,  geology,  and  anthropology. 

V.  Philosophy,  psychology,  izaiiayuyia. 

VI.  Vocal,  instrumental,  and  theoretical 
music. 

VII.  Gymnastics  and  calligraphy. 

VIII.  Explanations  of  the  Gospels. 

Seven  female  students  obtained  their  diplo- 
mas this  year  (1877),  and  were  sent  into  the 
interior,  where  in  their  turn  they  will  be 
called  upon  to  impart  light  and  knowledge  to 
the  girls  of  some  little  town  or  village. 

During  my  travels  I  have  often  come 
across  these  provincial  schools,  and  found 
much  pleasure  in  conversing  with  the  lady- 
like, modest  young  Athenian  women,  who 
had  left  home  and  country  to  give  their 
teaching  and  example  to  their  less-favored 
sisters  in  Turkey.  I  remember  feeling  a 
special  interest  in  two  of  these,  whom  I 
found  established  in  a  flourishing  Greek  vil- 
lage in  a  mountainous  district  of  Mace- 
donia. 

I  was  invited  into  their  little  parlor,  ad- 
joining the  school.  It  was  plain  but  very 
neat,  and  the  scantiness  of  the  furniture  was 
more  than  atoned  for  by  the  quantity  of 
flowers  and   the   many   specimens   of   their 


clever  handiwork.  The  Chorbadji's  wives, 
some  of  them  wealthy,  doted  upon  these 
girls,  who  were  generally  looked  up  to  and 
called  Kyria  (lady) ;  each  wife  vying  with 
the  other  in  copying  the  dresses  and  man- 
ners of  these  phenomenal  beings  transplanted 
into  their  mountain  soil.  The  children,  too, 
seemed  devoted  to  their  teachers,  and  de- 
lighted in  .he  instruction  given  them,  while 
the  men  of  the  village  showed  them  all  re- 
spect, and  seemed  to  pride  themselves  on  the 
future  benefit  their  daughters  and  sisters 
would  derive  from  the  teachings  and  good  in- 
fluence of  these  ladies. 

Having  sufficiently  enlarsred  upon  the  edu- 
cation of  the  girls  of  Salonika,  I  will  now  pass 
on  to  that  of  the  boys,  which  is  far  more  ad 
vauced. 

The  highest  school  for  boys  is  called  the 
G\-mnasium.  It  contains  four  classes,  in 
which  six  professors  teach  the  following  sub- 
jects : 

I.  Greek  :  translation  of  Greek  poetry  and 
prose,  with  analysis  and  commentary,  gram- 
matical and  geographical,  historical,  archaeo- 
logical, etc. 

II.  Latin  :  translations  from  Latin  authors 
and  poets,  with  analysis. 

III.  Scripture  lessons :  catechism,  with 
theological  analysis  and  explanations. 

IV.  Mathematics  :  theoretical  arithmetic, 
geometry,  algebra,  and  trigonometry. 

V.  Natural  science,  comprising  the  study 
of  geology,  anthropology,  physiology,  and 
cosmography. 

VI.  History  :  universal,  and  more  especi- 
ally Greek. 

VII.  Philosophy,  psychology,  and  logic. 

VIII.  French  grammar,  exercises  and 
translations  from  the  best  French  authors. 

The  next  Greek  school  contains  three 
classes,  in  which  three  masters  teach  the  fol- 
lowing lessons  : 

I.  Greek,  in  all  its  branches. 

II.  Sacred  lessons,  history,  and  catechism. 

III.  Mathematics,  practical  arithmetic,  and 
geometry. 

IV.  Natural  history. 

V.  Political  geography. 

VI.  Universal  history. 

In  the  middle  school  of  this  same  town 
there  are  four  classes,  each  subdivided  into 
two  ;  five  masters  teach  the  following  les- 
sons : 

I.  Greek  :  reading,  writing,  modern  Greek 
grammar,  and  explanations  of  modern  Greek 
authors. 

II.  Sacred  history  and  catechism. 

III.  History  of  Greece. 

IV.  Mathematics  and  practical  arithmetic. 

V.  Natural  history. 

VI.  Political  geography. 

VII.  Vocal  music  and  gymnastics. 

How  often,  when  witnessing  the  persever- 
ance and  energy  displayed  in  promoting  edu- 
cation among  the  Greeks  and  Bulgarians, 
have  I  heartily  wished  that  some  more  of  the 
funds  given  by  our  philanthropists  for  the 
purposes  of  conversion  could  finl  their  way 
into  the  educational  channel,  and  help  to 
stimulate  its  progress  ! 

Conversing  on  this  subject  with  an  intelli- 
gent American  missionary,  settled  amongst 
the  Bulgarians,  I  was  told  that  the  mission- 
aries found  it  hard  to  work  upon  the  ignorant 
and  prejudiced,  who  distrust  them  and  do 
not  listen  willingly  to  their  teaching.  The 
schoolmasters,  the  most  enlightened  among 
the  people,  alone  comprehend  and  appreciate 
their  object.  He  said,  "  Could  we  help 
these  people  to  help  themselves  through  their 
own  schools  by  contributing  to  their  support, 
our  work  would  prosper  far  better.  Educa- 
tion, destroying  prejudice  and  superstition, 
would  pave  the  way  to  a  simpler  form  of 
worship  ;  and  those  who  really  wish  to  ben- 
efit ignorant  humanity  in  a  sensible  and  effec- 
tive manner  ought  to  direct  their  efforts  to- 
wards the  propagation  of  education,  which 


would  finally  lead  to  the  end  they  have  in 
view." 

I  also  visited  another  Greek  school  at  Salo- 
nika, which  was  under  the  direction  of  a 
Greek  gentleman  educated  in  Germany,  who 
has  designed  a  new  educational  system 
which,  having  had  a  fair  trial,  will  eventu- 
ally be  adopted  in  all  the  educational  estab- 
lishments of  the  Greeks.  The  origin  of  this 
institution  does  not  date  further  back  than 
two  years,  and  of  all  the  schools  I  have  vis- 
ited here  and  elsewhere,  this  certainly  struck 
me  as  being  the  best  and  the  most  perfect  of 
its  kind.  The  children  were  divided  into 
classes,  each  of  which  was  examined  by  the 
master,  the  result  of  which  greatly  surprised 
myself  and  some  friends  who  were  present. 
The  director,  who  justly  took  great  pride  in 
his  work,  assured  us  that  all  these  boys  un- 
der his  care  (whose  ages  did  not  exceed 
eleven)  in  consequence  of  the  quickness, 
facility,  and  ability  with  which  they  received 
his  instructions,  had  learnt  in  one  year  what 
he  had  been  unable  to  teach  in  double  that 
space  of  time  to  children  in  Germany.  He 
added  that  he  was  constantly  called  upon  to 
answer  a  shower  of  questions  and  remarks 
made  by  the  pupils  upon  the  theme  of  the 
lesson,  which,  having  explained,  he  allows 
them  time  aud  liberty  to  discuss  the  difficult 
points,  until  they  had  quite  mastered  them. 
On  their  first  entrance  they  appear  listless 
and  uninterested,  but  as  the  love  of  knowl- 
edge is  developed  and  grows  upon  them,  they 
often,  when  school  time  is  up,  beg  permis- 
sion to  remain  an  hour  longer  in  class. 

The  youngest  were  first  examined  in  read- 
ing. They  read  fluently  from  Homer,  and 
translated  into  modern  Greek  from  chance 
pages  left  for  us  to  choose.  While  the  direc- 
tor was  dwelling  on  some  meteorological  sub- 
ject, one  little  mite  of  six  lifted  up  its  finger 
and  said,  "  I  noticed  that  the  sky  was  very 
cloudy  yesterday,  and  yet  it  did  not  rain,  may 
I  explain  why?"  Permission  was  at  once 
given,  and  he  enlightened  us  on  the  subject. 
All  the  questions  put  to  the  senior  boys  in 
mathematics  and  natural  science  were  re- 
sponded to  with  great  promptitude  and  with  a 
clear  knowledge  of  what  they  referred  to. 
The  dog  was  the  subject  chosen  for  the  les- 
son on  zoology.  The  answers  to  the  questions 
put  on  the  variety  of  the  species,  and  the 
different  characteristics  that  distinguished 
them,  were  given  with  an  exactness  that 
showed  how  well  the  subject  had  been  ex- 
plained  and  understood.  Scenes  from  Greek 
mythology,  orally  taught,  had  been  learnt  by 
heart,  and  were  well  retained  by  the  pupils, 
who  are  said  to  display  great  interest  in  the 
classic  selections,  which  they  act  in  an  admi- 
rable manner  ;  the  piece  chosen  for  recital  in 
our  presence  was  a  selection  from  the  Iphi- 
genia  in  Tauris  of  Euripides. 

In  answer  to  our  inquiries  on  the  conduct 
and  natural  disposition  of  his  pupils,  the 
master  said  both  were  good,  although  not 
free  from  faults,  which  he  however  felt  con- 
fident would  in  time  be  eradicated  by  proper 
care  and  attention.  When  they  first  come 
they  are  apt  to  be  untruthful :  a  vice  I  sup- 
pose they  acquire,  together  with  other  bad 
habits,  in  the  streets,  where  they  are  unfor- 
tunately allowed  to  associate  with  children 
who  have  ^received  no  education.  Very 
much  pleased  with  all  I  had  seen  and  heard 
in  this  establishment,  I  begged  the  director 
to  let  me  have  one  of  the  class-books  contain- 
ing the  routine  of  teaching.  He  replied  that 
he  had  no  special  work  on  the  subject  to 
abide  by,  and  that  the  routine  of  the  lessons, 
left  to  his  own  judgment,  had  been  combined 
by  him  partly  from  the  system  he  had  studied 
iii  Germany,  and  partly  from  ideas  suggested 
to  him  by  reading  the  philosophical  works 
of  Herbert  Spencer,  for  which  he  appeared 
to  have  a  great  admiration. 

Few  subjects,  I  think,  are  more  worthy  of 
attention  than  the  march  of  progress  among 
nations  which,  perhaps  from  causes  beyond 
their  own  control,  have  long  remained  sta- 


THE   PEOPLE  OF  TURKEY. 


61 


tionary.  I  asked  a  Greek  gentleman,  a  short 
time  since,  what  was  the  difference  between 
the  present  and  the  last  generation  ;  what 
wen-  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
each,  and  what  the  advantages  of  the  actual 
over  the  two  preceding  it.  lie  replied  that 
the  first  was  Ignorant  and  despotic  ;  fortune, 
rather  than  merit,  establishing  the  personal 
influence  of  the  individual.  When  this  in- 
fluence was  due  to  official  favoritism,  it  was 
seldom  honestly  acquired,  and  rarely  benefi- 
cial to  others.  The  fortunes,  too,  if  made  in 
the  country,  would  not  stand  very  close  in- 
spection, for  the  system  of  money-making 
in  Turkey  is  of  so  elastic  a  nature  that  it  has 
to  l>e  pulled  many  ways,  drawn  and  quarter- 
ed, before  the  honest  capitalist  can  call  the 
money  Ins  own.  The  ladies  of  the  past  gen- 
eration, though  good  and  matronly,  had  re- 
ceived no  education,  and  consequently  could 
not  afford  to  their  children  the  moral  support 
that  the  children  of  the  present  day  are  be- 
ginning to  enjoy.  The  mothers  taught  their 
daughters  to  be  pious  and  honest,  and  in- 
structed them  in  household  management  and 
needlework,  giving  them  at  the  same  time  a 
very  limited  supply  of  elementary  teaching  : 
any  further  education,  up  to  a  recent  date, 
was  considered  a  superfluous  accomplish- 
ment for  girls.  The  fathers  had  begun  to 
pay  more  attention  to  the  education  of  their 
sons,  but  this  education  was  of  a  peculiar 
character  ;  some  of  these  boys,  when  even 
sent  to  foreign  colleges  to  complete  their 
studies,  on  returning  home,  were  allowed 
neither  the  liberty  of  action  nor  the  freedom 
of  thought  that  they  were  entitled  to  by  their 
superior  education. 

When  these  studies  opened  no  particular 
career  to  them,  the  youths  were  generally 
called  upon  to  follow  the  father's  trade  or 
profession  in  a  monotonous  routine  of  ten  dis- 
tasteful to  the  more  spirited  young  men,  who 
could  not  break  through  the  restraint  with- 
out rebelling  against  the  paternal  authority. 
This  check  often  led  to  disobedience  and  de- 
sertion. The  independent  youth  would  seek 
elsewhere  a  calling  more  adapted  to  his 
taste  ;  many  of  these  young  men,  starting 
with  no  resources  but  their  brains,  have  been 
known  to  realize  great  fortunes.  The  rest 
of  them,  married  to  wives  generally  chosen 
for  them  by  their  parents,  continue  to  live 
docilely  under  the  paternal  roof,  showing 
every  mark  of  deference  to  their  father's  will, 
— the  absolute  law  of  the  house. 

All  that  is  now  changed  ;  the  present  gen- 
eration is  far  more  active  and  free-thinking. 
Those  who  have  had  the  advantages  of  ed- 
ucation are  no  longer  the  dreaded  despots  of 
their  homes,  but  the  companions  of  their 
wives  and  the  friends  of  their  children,  who, 
thanks  to  the  privileges  they  enjoy  in  this 
respect,  find  their  way  to  a  free  exchange  of 
ideas  and  feelings  with  their  parents.  Many 
openings  are  now  afforded  to  youths,  who 
are  consulted  on  the  subject,  and  are  free  to 
follow  the  career  they  may  choose.  Should 
this  be  commercial,  they  are  no  longer,  as 
formerly,  the  employes  of  their  fathers,  but 
partners  with  them,  sharing  the  responsibili- 
ties and  the  profits  of  the  business. 

Good  principles  and  morality  are  said  to 
have  made  great  progress  among  the  rising 
generation,  which  in  all  respects  is  consider- 
ed by  careful  observers  to  be  far  superior  to, 
and  promising  to  wipe  away  some  of  the 
faults  of,  their  ancestors  in  modern  times. 
Dishonesty  is  one  of  the  evils  generally  at- 
tributed to  the  Greek  character.  Consider- 
ing the  long  experience  I  have  had  of  this 
country,  the  close  contact  into  which  I  have 
been  brought  with  all  degrees  of  the  Greek 
community,  I  cannot  in  justice  admit  this 
to  be  the  rule.  In  my  dealings  with  trades- 
people, I  have  never  found  them  worse  than 
their  neighbors  belonging  to  other  nation- 
alities, nor  can  I  say  that  I  have  often  de- 
tected dishonesty  in  Greek  servants,  whilst  to 
their  devotion  and  good  services  I  owe  much 
of  the  comfort  of  a  well-served  house. 


The  nation  of  the  Greeks  is  earnestly 
taken  up  witli  remodelling  itself  through  the 
salutary  means  of  education  ;  it  has  made 
great  progress,  and  cannot  fail  to  fit  itself  for 
the  prominent  part  it  has  to  play  in  the  des- 
tinies of  South-eastern  Europe. 

At  no  epoch  of  the  history  of  the  Bulga- 
rians does  their  dormant  intellect  appear  to 
have  produced  any  works  of  art  or  genius. 
This  conclusion  is  arrived  at  by  the  absence 
of  any  proof  of  an  anterior  Bulgarian  civiliza- 
tion in  the  form  of  literature  or  monuments. 
Without  personal  traditions,  they  know 
nothing  of  their  past ;  and  to  learn  some- 
thing of  it,  are  forced  to  consult  the  Byzan- 
tine and  Slavonic  authors.  What  civiliza- 
tion they  possessed  was  also  borrowed  from 
the  Slavs  and  Byzantines,  with  whom  they 
lived  in  close  contact.  In  comparing  the 
national  songs,  their  only  literature,  with 
those  of  the  above-mentioned  nations,  we  are 
led  to  conclude  that  the  Bulgarians  remained 
equally  impervious  to  the  softer  and  more 
elevating  influence  of  the  Greeks,  and  to  the 
warlike  and  independent  spirit  of  the  Ser- 
vians and  other  Slav  populations,  by  whom 
they  were  surrounded.  Having  imbibed 
only  to  a  slight  extent  the  civilization  of  their 
time,  they  must,  after  the  Ottoman  con- 
quest, through  oppression  and  neglect,  have 
forgotten  the  little  they  once  possessed,  and 
submitted  to  the  life  of  perpetual  toil  and 
hardship  which  they  have  for  centuries  en- 
dured. 

These  peacefully  disposed  and  hardwork- 
ing peasants,  however,  though  devoid  of 
learning,  deprived  of  national  history,  and 
cut  off  from  the  means  of  improvement,  lack 
neither  intelligence,  perseverance,  nor  desire 
for  instruction.  We  And  the  indications  of 
this  tendency  in  some  of  their  somewhat  dis- 
connected and  often  uncouth  national  songs 
and  ballads,  which  breathe  a  true  love  of 
country  life,  and  illustrate  the  slow  progress 
of  their-  art,  by  eulogizing  the  slight  innova- 
tions in  their  agricultural  implements.  Many 
of  their  ballads  set  forth  the  brave  deeds  of 
their  few  heroes,  illustrate  the  past  glory  of 
their  kingdom,  lament  its  downfall,  or  en- 
deavor to  account  for  its  misfortunes.* 

These  timid  utterances  of  an  undeveloped 
people  are  simple  narratives  of  past  inci- 
dents, whose  relation  is  heightened  neither  by 
the  spirit  of  revenge  for  wrongs,  nor  yet  by 
hope  for  a  brighter  future.  These,  the  only 
heritage  of  their  ancestors,  the  Bulgarians 
treasure  in  their  hearts,  and  at  moments  of 
joy  and  exhilaration  or  suffering,  chant 
them  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  ffvda,  an 
instrument  of  three  chords,  whose  monoto- 
nous sounds  harmonize  well  with  the  shrill  or 
plaintive  airs  in  which  utterance  is  given  to 
their  sentiments. 

The  blow  aimed  at  the  Bulgarian  Church  a 
little  more  than  a  century  ago  fell  with  equal 
weight  upon  the  schools,  which,  though 
neither  numerous  nor  effective,  were  never- 
theless most  valuable  to  the  people,  as  the 
last  depositories  of  their  national  tongue. 
These  establishments,  though  the  use  of  the 
Bulgarian  language  was  formally  abolished 
in  them  by  the  Greek  Patriarch,  still  re- 
mained scattered  all  over  Bulgaria,  and,  di- 
rected by  the  priests,  enabled  the  Bulgarians, 
during  the  revival  of  the  Church  question,  to 
make  use  of  them  as  foundations  for  the 
more  important  and  solid  erections  that  have 
subsequently  risen  over  them.  The  sudden 
manifestation  of  a  desire  for  instruction  and 
national  improvement  in  Bulgaria  is  one  of 
the  most  extraordinary  phenomena  I  have 
had  occasion  to  notice  in  the  East. 

Education  at  the  time  of  the  commence- 
ment of  this  movement  was  a  privilege  pos- 
sessed by  the  very  small  section  of  the  na- 
tion who  were  able  to  seek  it  in  foreign 
countries.     The  townspeople  studied  but  lit- 


*  Those  who  wish  to  have  some  idea  of  Bulgarian 
poetry  will  find  an  interesting  account  of  it  in  a  work 
on  Slav  poetry  by  Madame  Dora  d'Istria. 


tie,  and  the  teaching  in  their  schools  com- 
prised the  Greek  language,  together  with  a 
few  general  notions  ;  while  the  bulk  of  the 
population  in  the  rural  districts  were  left  in 
entire  ignorance.  Those  who  wished  for 
a  more  complete  education,  without  leaving 
their  country,  had  recourse  to  the  higher 
Greek  schools,  in  spite  of  the  antipathy  that 
existed  between  the  two  races. 

I  had  written  to  a  Bulgarian  gentleman  re- 
questing some  information  upon  the  state  of 
education  in  his  country,  but,  unfortunately, 
the  time  at  which  I  made  this  request  did 
not  allow  him  to  meet  my  demand,  and  his 
daughter,  a  clever  and  accomplished  young 
lady,  undertook  the  task  instead.  The  fol- 
lowing is  part  of  her  first  letter  on  the  sub- 
ject : 

"  Chere  Madame  :  Mon  pere  m'a  dit 
que  vous  desiriez  avoir  quelques  renseigne- 
ments  relativement  a  l'instruction  en  Bul- 
garie :  une  statistique  des  ecoles,  je  crois. 
Comme  il  est  tres-occupe  dans  ce  mo- 
ment, il  m'a  charge  de  vous  fournir  le 
peu  de  renseignemeuts  que  nous  possedons 
a.  ce  sujet.  J  ai  done  j-ecueilli  tout  ce  qui 
a  ete  publie  jusqu'a  present  par  rapport 
aux  ecoles ;  mais  malhcureuseincnt  tout 
cela  n'est  que  fort  incomplete  Je  me  suis 
done  adressee  aux  eveques,  esperant  obtenir 
d'eux  des  informations  plus  exactes,  et  sur- 
tout  plus  completes,  et  quelques  una  d'eux 
m'ont  promis  de  m'envoyer  des  statistiques 
des  ecoles  dans  lears  eparchies.  Quant  a, 
l'origine  de  ce  mouvement  de  la  nation  Bul- 
gare  vers  la  lumiere,  on  n'en  sait  pas  grand' 
chose.  Tout  ce  que  je  pourrais  vous  dire  a 
ce  sujet  n'est  que  les  premieres  manifesta- 
tions, faisant  presagcr  le  reveil  de  cette  nation 
a  la  vie,  datenl  du  commencement  de  ce 
siecle.  Deja  en  1806  apparait  le  premier  livre 
publie  en  langue  Bulgare  ;  l'annee  1819  on 
voit  paraitre  deux  autres,  et  depuis  ce  temps 
ehaque  annee  apporle  son  contingent,  quoique 
bien  maigre  encore,  a  ce  petit  tresor,  qui 
s'amassegoutteagoutte.  Quel  reve  avait  fait 
tressaillir  ce  peuple  dans  cette  torpeur  ou  il 
etait  plonge  et  qui  avait  toutes  les  apparences 
d'une  lethargic  devant  (hirer  eternellement  ? 
Etait-ee  mi  souvenir instantane du  passe  '*.  Une 
esperance  sublte  d'un  avenir  moins  sombre? 
Car,  l'epoque  est  assez  loin  encore  ou  cette 
agglomeration  do  peuples,  dont  il  fait  partie, 
va  venir  en  contact  avec  1 'Europe  civilisee  et 
en  subir  l'influence.  Quelque  interessante 
que  serait  l'explication  de  ce  phenomene,  on 
est  oblige'  neanmoins  de  se  contenter  de  con- 
jectures. La  tache  de  l'historien  qui  essay- 
erait  d'elaircir  ce  point  est  tout  aussi  difficile 
que  celle  du  philosophe  qui  cherche  a  de  de- 
crire  le  travail  opere  dans  l'ame  de  l'enfant 
avancant  progressivement  a  la  lumiere  des 
nouvelles  notions.  Dans  tous  les  deux  cas, 
l'individu,  dans  lequcl  s'opere  ce  travail  et 
qui  pourtant  est  le  plus  a  meme  d'en  obser- 
ver la  marche,  est,  par  sa  faiblesse  meme, 
incapable  d'en  juger  ;  il  subit  passivement, 
et  e'est  tout,  dependant  cette  periode  si  ob- 
scure de  notre  vie  nationale  nous  a  legue 
trois  noms  bien  brillants.  Je  veux  parler 
du  pere  Paisiy,  qui,  vers  la  tin  du  dernier 
siecle  ecrivait  line  histoire  de  la  Bulgarie  et 
quelques  autres  ouvrages  ;  de  Stoiko  Vladis- 
lavoff  (17:59-1715),  plus  tard  connu  sous  le 
nom  de  Sofraniy,  qui  ecrivit  pies  d'une  ving- 
taine  d'ouvrages  dont  quelques  uns  n'exist- 
ent  plus  ;  et  enfin  de  Neophite  Bogvely,  dont 
un  des  ouvrages,  intitule  '  Mati  Bolgaria' 
(Mere  Bulgarie),  est  d'une  aetualite  si  frap- 
pante  qu'on  le  croirait  ecrit  hier.  C'est  un 
dialogue  entre  une  mere  et  son  tils  dans  le- 
quel  ils  deplorent  l'etat  de  la  patrie  et  recher- 
chent  les  causes  de  ses  malheurs.  La  mere  se 
demande  comment,  maigre  les  immunites  ac- 
cordees  aux  Chretiens  et  la  promulgation  de 
tant  de  bonnes  lois,  le  sort  de  ces  derniers  ne 
se  trouve  pas  ameliore  ;  alors  le  Ills  la  fait 
attention  a  la  nianiere  dont  les  lois  sont  ap- 
pliquees,  Ou  ne  parlerait  pas  autrement  au- 
jourd'hui !    Observons  eu  outre  que  tous  les 


62 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


trois  parlent  du  joug  pkanariote  comme  d'une 
des  principales  causes  des  malheurs  de  la 
Bulgarie.  Ceci  moutre  que  reveil  de  l'esprit 
national  chez  les  Bulgares  n'est  point,  comme 
quelques  uns  aiment  a  le  faire  croire,  un 
mouvement  factice  du  it  quelques  individus. 
C'est  dans  l'histoire  de  ces  trois  homines,  qui, 
dans  des  circonstances  plus  favorables  aurai- 
ent  infailliblement  ete  de  veritables  flam- 
beaux pour  leur  nation et  peut-etre  pour  l'hu- 
manite — c'est  dans  leur  histoire,  dis-je,  qu'il 
faudrait  chercher  une  partie  des  causes  de  la 
regeneration  de  la  nation  Bulgare. 

"  Vous  voudriez  savoir  1'epoque  a  laquelle 
la  premifire  ecole  f ut  fondee  en  Bulgarie.  II 
semble  que  de  tout  temps  de  petites  aieut  ex- 
iste  ou  le  pre t re  enseignait  aux  enfants  a  lui, 
et  oii  la  limite  supreme  de  la  science  etait  at- 
teinte  quand  on  parvenait  a  griffoner  son 
nom.  .Mais  la  premiere  ecole  un  pea  plus 
digne  de  ce  nom  a  ete  fondee  a  Gabrova  vers 
l'an  1835.     Kopriochtitza,  Kalofer,  Bazard- 

i'ik,  Sopote,  suivirent  bientot  cet  exemple. 
ia  premiere  ecole  Bulgare  a  Philippopolis 
fut  fondee  en  1867.  Je  pourrais  vous  en- 
voyer  avec  les  statistiques  les  programmes  de 
quelques  unes  des  principales  ecoles.  ..." 

I  regret  to  say  that  subsequent  events  un- 
fortunately prevented  my  obtaining  all  the 
hoped-for  information  on  this  subject.  I  can 
therefore  only  present  an  incomplete  descrip- 
tion of  the  work  of  education  in  Bulgaria. 

The  schools  opened  at  Gabrova,  Kalofer, 
Sapote,  and  subsequently  at  Philippopolis, 
were  the  precursors  of  those  that  by  degrees 
spread  in  all  directions,  entering  every  nook 
where  a  Bulgarian  settlement  existed  ;  ten 
years  were  sufficient  to  augment  the  small 
number  of  original  establishments  to  the  fol- 
lowing number  that  existed  in  Bulgaria  pre- 
viously to  the  desolation  that  befell  that  un- 
fortunate country. 

In  the  province  of  Philippopolis  there  were 
805  primary  schools,  15  superior  schools, 
with  856  teachers  and  12,400  scholars;  27 
girls'  schools,  with  37  teachers  and  2265  pu- 
pils. The  Tuna  vilayet,  equally  endowed, 
was  also  in  a  fair  way  of  improvement,  and 
the  Bulgarian  youth  there,  though  less  ad- 
vanced than  in  the  district  of  Philippopolis, 
were  beginning  to  rival  their  brethren  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Balkans. 

The  lessons  taught  in  the  gymnasium  at 
Philippopolis  comprise  the  Turkish,  Greek, 
and  French  languages,  elementary  mathemat- 
ics, geography,  Bulgarian  and  Turkish  his- 
tory, mental  and  moral  philosophy,  religious 
and  moral  instruction,  and  church  music. 

All  these  larger  establishments,  most  of 
which  1  visited,  were  line  spacious  edifices  ; 
some  of  them  were  formerly  large  old  man- 
sions, others  were  specially  erected  for 
schools. 

Up  to  the  year  1800  the  schools  in  Bulgaria 
owed  their  creation  and  maintenance  to  vol- 
untary subscriptions  and  to  funds  bequeathed 
by  charitable  individuals.  But  these  funds 
were  small  compared  with  the  demand  made 
by  the  people  for  the  extension  and  develop- 
ment of  their  educational  institutions.  At 
the  separation  of  their  Church  from  that  of 
Constantinople,  they  reappropriated  the  rev- 
enues, which  were  placed  under  the  direction 
of  a  number  of  men  chosen  from  each  dis- 
trict, and  a  part  of  them  was  set  aside  for  the 
purposes  of  education.  These  first  steps  to 
wards  a  systematic  organization  of  the  Church 
and  schools  were  followed  by  the  appointment 
of  a  mixed  commission  of  clerical  and  lay 
members,  annually  elected  in  each  district, 
charged  with  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
local  ecclesiastical  department.  Each  com- 
mission acts  separately  and  independently  of 
the  other,  but  is  answerable  to  the  community 
at  large  for  the  supervision  and  advancement 
of  public  instruction.  A  further  innovation 
in  the  shape  of  supplying  funds  for  the  in 
creasing  demand  for  schools  of  a  higher  class 
was  made  by  the  Bulgarians  of  Philippopolis 
by  contriving  to  persuade  the  authorities  of 
that  place  to  allow  a  tax  to  be  levied  on  each 


male  Bulgarian  of  52  paras  (about  2\d.),  by 
means  of  which  they  are  enabled  to  improve 
and  maintain  their  excellent  gymnasium. 
When  I  visited  these  establishments,  most  of 
them  were  in  their  infancy.  Bulgarian  fa- 
thers, with  genuine  pride  and  joy,  gladly  led 
their  sons  to  the  new  national  schools,  telling 
them  to  become  good  men,  remain  devoted 
to  their  nation,  and  pray  for  the  Sultan.  Ex- 
aggerated and  unnatural  as  this  feeling  may 
appear  in  the  face  of  late  events,  it  was  never- 
theless genuine  among  the  Bulgarians  in 
those  days.  Russian  influence  had  not  made 
itself  felt  at  that  time,  nor  were  the  intellects 
of  the  poor  ignorant  Bulgarians  sufficiently 
developed  to  enable  them  to  entertain  revolu- 
tionary notions  or  plot  in  the  dark  to  raise 
the  standard  of  rebellion.  Entirely  absorbed 
at  that  moment  in  the  idea  of  obtaining  the 
independence  of  their  Church  and  promoting 
education,  they  were  grateful  to  their  mas- 
ters for  the  liberty  allowed  them  to  do  more 
than  they  had  presumed  to  expect. 

During  the  reign  of  Sultan  Abdul- Aziz  the 
sentiment  of  loyalty  of  the  subject  races  to- 
wards their  ruler  diverged  into  two  widely 
distinct  paths  Among  the  Bulgarians  this 
devotion  originated  in  the  intense  ignorance 
and  debasement  to  which  centuries  of  bond- 
age had  reduced  them  :  with  the  Greeks, 
after  the  creation  of  free  Hellas,  there  exist- 
ed a  well-grounded  confidence  in  themselves, 
a  clear  insight  into  the  future,  and  the  pa- 
tience to  keep  quiet  and  wait  for  their  oppor- 
tunity. The  Bulgarians  were  loyal  because 
they  knew  no  better  ;  the  Greeks  because 
their  time  was  not  yet  come.  They  knew 
the  truth,  "  Tout  vient  a  point  a  qui  sait  at- 
tendre."  If  the  minds  of  the  Bulgarians 
subsequently  became  more  alive  to  their  ac- 
tual situation  and  they  listened  to  revolu- 
tionary suggestions,  it  was  due  to  the  teach- 
ing they  had  obtained  from  their  schools  and 
from  the  national  ideas  instilled  into  their 
minds  by  the  priests  and  schoolmasters. 
This  teaching  was  not  always  derived  from 
books,  for  these  were  rare  and  precious  ob- 
jects not  easy  to  obtain.  Moreover,  the  dif- 
ference between  the  written  and  spoken  lan- 
guage is  so  great  that  the  former  can  scarce- 
ly be  understood  by  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  original  Hunnish  tongue,  ab- 
sorbed by  the  Slavonic  dialect  that  succeeded 
it,  has  preserved  but  little  of  the  primitive 
unwritten  idiom  ;  and  even  the  adopted  one 
that  replaced  it  gradually  took  in  so  great  a 
number  of  Turkish,  Greek,  Servian,  and  other 
foreign  words  as  to  make  the  Btdgarian  ver- 
nacular scarcely  analogous  with  the  more 
polished  language  now  taught  in  the  schools. 
Even  in  Philippopolis  some  years  ago  the 
Bulgarian  ladies  had  great  difficulty  in  un- 
derstanding the  conversation  of  the  ladies  be- 
longing to  the  American  mission,  who  had 
learnt  the  written  language  and  spoke  it  with 
great  purity.  The  modern  Bulgarian  is 
based  upon  the  Slav,  and  although  differing 
considerably  from  the  Russian  Slav  lan- 
guage, the  two  nations  have  no  great  diffi- 
culty, after  a  little  practice,  in  comprehend- 
ing each  other.  No  less  than  seven  Bulga- 
rian grammars  are  in  existence,  all  written 
during  the  last  fifteen  years  ;  but  they  agree 
neither  in  the  general  principles  nor  in  the 
details.  Some  entirely  disregard  the  popular 
idiom,  and  impose  the  rules  of  modern  Rus- 
sian or  Servian  on  the  language.  Others  at- 
tempt to  reduce  to  rules  the  vernacular, 
which  is  variable,  vague,  and  imperfect. 

The  schoolmasters  are,  generally  speaking, 
young,  ardent,  and  enthusiastic  ;  if  educated 
abroad,  they  are  fully  versed  in  all  the  usual 
branches  of  study,  earnest  in  their  work,  as 
if  pressed  forwards  by  the  impetus  of  their 
desire  for  inculcating  into  the  minds  of  their 
ignorant  but  by  no  means  unintelligent  breth- 
ren all  the  views  and  sentiments  that  engross 
their  own.  The  priests  of  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages become  their  confidants  and  cowork- 
ers ;  and  thus  the  two  bodies  that  had  ob- 
tained self-existence  at  the  same  time,  and 


had  the  same  object  in  view,  served  later  on 
as  organs  for  instilling  into  the  people  some 
notions  of  personal  independence  and  the 
wish  for  national  liberty. 

As  a  rule  the  Bulgarian  is  neither  bright 
nor  intelligent  in  appearance.  His  timid 
look,  reserved  and  awkward  manner,  and  his 
obstinate  doggedness  when  he  cannot  or  will 
not  understand,  give  the  peasant  au  air  of 
impenetrability  often  amounting  to  brute 
stupidity.  But  those  who  have  well  studied 
the  capacity  and  disposition  of  the  Bulgarian 
consider  this  due  rather  to  an  incapability  of 
comprehending  at  the  first  glance  the  object 
or  subject  presented  to  his  attention,  and  a 
dogged  obstinacy  that  will  not  allow  him  to 
yield  readily  to  the  proofs  offered  him. 

This  defect  is  so  prominent  in  the  Bulga- 
rians that  they  have  received  from  the  Greeks 
the  cognomen  of  xovdt>OKe(!"*^ovs  (thick- 
heads), and  a  Turk,  wishing  to  denote  a  per- 
son of  an  obstinate  character,  will  use  the  ex- 
pression of  "  Bulgar  Kaphalu,"  while  the 
Bulgarian  himself  makes  a  joke  of  it,  and, 
striking  his  head,  or  that  of  his  neighbor, 
exclaims,  "  Bulgarski  glava"  (Bulgarian 
head).  These  heads,  however,  when  put  to 
the  proof,  by  their  capacity  for  study,  their 
patience,  and  perseverance,  gain  complete 
mastery  of  the  subject  they  interest  them- 
selves in,  giving  evidence  of  intelligence, 
which  requires  only  time  and  opportunity  to 
develop  into  maturity. 

The  rivalry  between  this  nation  and  the 
Greeks  is  also  doing  much  to  promote  educa- 
tion. But  another  and  more  friendly  and 
effective  stimulant  exists  in  the  untiring 
efforts  of  the  American  missionaries  who 
have  chosen  this  promising  field  of  labor. 
Their  civilizing  influence  has  taken  an  unas- 
suming but  well-rooted  foundation  in  all  the 
places  in  which  they  have  established  them- 
selves, and  gradually  develops  and  makes 
itself  evident  in  more  than  one  way.  Inde- 
fatigable in  their  work  of  promoting  relig- 
ious enlightenment  and  education,  these  mis- 
sionaries went  about  in  their  respective  dis- 
tricts, preaching  the  Gospel  and  distributing 
tracts  and  Bibles  among  the  people,  who,  in 
some  places,  received  them  gladly  with  kind- 
ness and  confidence,  while  in  others  they 
were  regarded  with  distrust.  Frequently, 
however,  a  stray  sheep  or  two  would  be 
found,  in  even  the  most  ignorant  and  be- 
nighted parts,  willing  to  be  led  away  from  his 
natural  shepherd,  ready  to  listen  to  and  ac- 
cept the  teaching  that  spoke  to  his  better 
feelings  and  his  judgment.  If  wholesale 
conversion  to  Protestantism  (of  which  I  am 
no  advocate,  unless  it  be  based  upon  real  in- 
tellectual progress  and  moral  development) 
does  not  follow,  much  good  is  done  in  pro- 
moting a  spirit  of  inquiry,  which  can  be  sat- 
isfied by  the  cheap  and  excellent  religious 
books  furnished  by  the  Bible  societies.  The 
purity  and  devotion  that  characterize  the 
lives  of  these  worthy  people,  who  abandon  a 
home  in  their  own  land  to  undertake  a  toil- 
some occupation  among  an  ignorant  and 
often  hostile  population,  form  another  moral 
argument  which  cannot  fail  in  the  end  to  tell 
upon  the  people.  Nor  has  their  work  of 
charity  amidst  death,  cold,  and  starvation, 
after  the  massacres,  often  at  the  risk  of  their 
own  lives,  tended  to  lessen  the  general  es- 
teem and  regard  in  which  they  are  held  by 
all  classes  and  creeds  of  the  population  by 
which  they  are  surrounded. 

The  Bulgarian  student,  whether  in  his 
own  national  schools  or  in  those  of  foreign 
nations,  is  hardworking  and  steady  ;  grave 
and  temperate  by  disposition,  he  seldom  ex- 
poses himself  to  correction  or  to  the  infliction 
of  punishment.  The  scarcity  of  teachers 
was  at  first  a  great  hindrance  to  the  propaga- 
tion of  knowledge  ;  this  difficulty  was  by 
degrees  removed  by  sending  youths  to  study 
in  foreign  countries,  who,  on  their  return, 
fulfilled  the  functions  of  schoolmasters.  In 
former  times  Russia  was  a  great  resort  for 
these  students,  but  lately,  notwithstanding  thu 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


S3 


rreat  facilities,  financial  and  otherwise,  af- 
forded them  in  that  country,  they  now  prefer 
the  schools  of  France  and  Germany,  together 
with  the  College  of  the  American  Mission  at 
Bebek,  and  the  training  schools  that  have 
been  lately  established  in  the  country,  which 
are  now  capable  of  supplying  the  teachers 
necessary  for  the  village  schools.  Recent 
events  have,  to  a  great  extent  disorganized 
this  exce'leut  system  :  had  it  been  allowed 
ten  years  longer  to  work,  a  transformed  Bul- 
garian nation  might  have  occupied  the  world's 
attention. 

The  girls'  schools,  also  formed  by  the  ac- 
tive American  ladies,  deserve  our  attention. 
Their  principal  object  is  to  bestow  sound 
Christian  instruction  upon  the  rising  female 
population,  and  their  efforts  have  met  with 
deserved  yet  unexpected  success,  not  only  in 
developing  knowledge  among  their  own  peo- 
ple, but  in  stimulating  the  Bulgarian  com- 
munities to  display  a  greater  interest  in  the 
education  of  their  daughters  and  fouud 
schools  of  a  similar  character.  These  estab- 
lishments have  produced  a  number  of  excel- 
lent scholars,  who  have  done  honor  to  them 
by  their  attainments  and  general  good  char- 
acter. 

The  agents  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Propa- 
ganda have  schools  in  the  principal  towns, 
and  are  actively  employed  ;  but  their  efforts 
are  more  particularly  directed  to  proselytism 
than  to  instruction,  and  their  work  has  con- 
sequently met  with  less  success  than  that  of 
the  Protestant  missionaries. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

SUPERSTITION. 

Superstitious  Character  of  the  Dwellers  in  Turkey — 
Olympus— Klephtic  Legends— The  Vrykolakas— Local 
Spirits— A  Vampire  at  Adrianople— Spirits  of  the 
Springs— Miraculous  Cures— Magic — Influence  upon 
Bulgarians— An  Historiette— Antidotes  for  Spells — The 
Meras  Tas — Universal  Belief  in  Magic,  and  the  Con- 
eequences— Buyti  Boghcha$--T)\Q  Euyu  Boglichas  of 
Abdul -Medjid  and  Aziz — Quack  Astrologers  —  A 
Superstitious  Pasha— The  Evil  Eye— Remedies  there- 
against— Spring  Bleeding— Vipers— Means  of  expelling 
Vermin— Remedial  Properties  of  Hebrew  Beards- 
Dreams — Omens — Sultan.  Mahmoud's  Omen — Predic- 
tions—The Bloody  Khan  :  Buried  Treasure. 

There  are  few  people  so  superstitious  as 
the  people  of  Turkey.  All  nations  have  then- 
traditions  and  fancies,  and  we  find  educated 
Englishmen  who  dislike  walking  under  a  lad- 
der on  superstitious  grounds  ;  but  in  Turkey 
every  action,  every  ceremony,  every  relation, 
is  hedged  round  with  fears  and  omens  and 
forebodings.  Whatever  happens  to  you  is 
the  work  of  supernatural  agencies,  and  can 
only  be  remedied  by  the  nostmrm  of  some 
disreputable  hag  or  some  equally  suspicious 
quack  diviner.  If  you  lose  anything,  it  is 
the  evil  eye  of  some  kind  friend  that  has 
done  it.  If  you  look  fixedly  at  anybody  or 
anything,  it  is  you  who  are  trying  to  cast  the 
evil  eye.  In  short,  nothing  happens  in  Tur- 
key unsupernaturally  :  there  is  always  some 
spirit  or  magician  or  evil  eye  at  the  bottom 
of  it.  And  this  belief  is  not  confined  to  the 
Turks  :  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  and  even  a  good 
many  Franks,  are  equally  superstitious.  Nor 
is  this  superstition,  like  the  manj-  harmless 
customs  still  observed  in  England,  a  mere 
luxury — an  affectation  :  it  is  a  matter  of  life 
and  death.  Not  a  few  young  girls  have  died 
from  the  belief  that  they  were  bewitched,  or 
from  some  other  superstitious  shock  ;  not  a 
few  homes  have  been  made  miserable  by  the 
meddlesome  prophecies  of  a  suborned  astrol- 
ogist. 

A  great  centre  of  superstition  is  Mount 
Olympus.  Since  the  gods  deserted  it  the 
popular  imagination  has  peopled  it  with  spir- 
its of  every  denomination,  and  Klephtic 
legend  has  added  to  the  host.  The  Greek 
peasants  have  a  superstitious  horror  of  ap- 
proaching the  ruined  villages  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountain  ;  making  the  sign  of  the  cross, 
they  take  a  circuitous  by-path  sooner  than 
follow  the  deserted  road  that  would  lead 
them  past  the  desecrated  church,  the  neg- 
lected graveyards,  the  blackened  ruins  of  the 


cottages,  now  believed  to  lie  haunted  by  the 
restless  spirits  of  dead  Klephts,  who  roam 
about  in  the  silence  of  night,  bemoaning 
their  fate,  and  crying  vengeance  on  the  op- 
pressors  of  their  race.  It  is  only  on  the  an- 
niversary of  the  patron  saint  of  this  deserted 
region  that  the  surviving  inhabitants  of  these 
once  prosperous  hamlets,  bringing  their  de- 
scendants and  carrying  the  aged  and  infirm 
as  well  as  the  youngest  babes,  set  out  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  these  spots  hallowed  by  unfor- 
gotten  'wrongs,  to  pray  for  the  souls  of  the 
dead  and  offer  mnemostyne  to  calm  their 
restless  spirits  ;  and  to  inculcate  in  their  chil- 
dren the  sacred  duty  of  vengeance  on  the  ty- 
rants who  inflicted  upon  their  ancestors  those 
speechless  injuries  whose  memory  it  is  the 
object  of  these  pilgrimages  to  preserve  fresh 
and  vengeful.  The  Turks,  ever  ready  to  ac- 
cept their  neighbors'  superstitions,  dread 
these  ruined  villages  no  less  than  the  Greeks. 
Peopled,  as  he  believes  them,  by  Peris  and 
Edjinlis,  no  Turk  will  come  near  them,  for 
fear  of  coming  under  some  malign  influence. 

The  Klephtic  legends  are  full  of  the  most 
terrible  of  all  ghosts,  the  Vrykolakas,  or  vam- 
pire. Many  popular  songs  tell  of  this  fearful 
spectre,  who  is  the  spirit  of  some  traitor  or 
other  evil-doer  who  cannot  be  at  peace  in  his 
grave,  but  is  ever  haunting  the  scene  of  his 
crime.  One  ghastly  poem  records  the  visit 
of  a  traitorous  Klepht  chieftain,  Thanase 
Vagia,  as  a  vampire,  to  his  widow.  This 
man  had  betrayed  his  comrades  to  Ali  Pasha, 
and  their  souls,  heralded  by  the  ghostly 
Kukuvagia,  or  owl  of  ill-omen,  come  and 
drag  him  from  his  grave  and  hurry  him  to 
Gardiki,  where  his  deed  of  treachery  was 
done.  Suddenly  they  find  the  soul  of  the 
tyrant  Ali  Pasha,  and,  forgotten  in  the  rush, 
Thanase  Vagia  takes  refuge  with  his  widow. 
The  dialogue  between  them  is  full  of  dra- 
matic power  ;  the  horror  of  the  wife  at  the 
livid  apparition  that  seeks  to  embrace  her, 
and  the  vampire's  terror  in  his  miserable 
doom,  are  vividly  told.  At  last  the  spectre 
is  driven  away  by  the  touch  of  the  cross, 
which  he  uncovers  on  his  wife's  bosom.  It 
is  a  striking  poem,  and  brings  home  to  one 
the  living  reality  of  this  horrible  superstition 
to  the  Greeks.  As  we  have  seen,  they  make 
periodical  visits  to  the  graves  of  their  dead  to 
discover  whether  the  soul  is  at  peace.  If  the 
body  is  not  fully  decomposed  at  the  end  of 
the  year,  they  believe  that  their  relation  has 
become  a  Vrj'kolakas,  and  use  every  means 
to  lay  the  spirit. 

But  the  Vrykolakas,  though  the  most 
ghastly  of  spirits,  is  not  alone.  There  are 
invisible  influences  everywhere  in  Turkey. 
If  the  Vrykolakas  haunts  the  graveyards,  old 
Konaks  have  their  edjinlis,  fountains  their 
peris,  public  baths  their  peculiar  genii. 

All  these  imaginary  beings,  whose  exist- 
ence is  implicitly  believed  in,  are  expected  to 
be  encountered  by  the  persons  upon  whom 
they  may  choose  to  cast  their  baneful  or 
good  influence.  Their  dreaded  hostility  is 
combated  by  the  Christians  by  religious  faith, 
such  as  an  earnest  appeal  to  Christ  and  the 
Virgin,  by  repeatedly  crossing  themselves  in 
the  name  of  both,  or  by  taking  hold  of  any 
sacred  amulet  they  may  have  on  their  per- 
sons. These  amulets  consist  of  small  por- 
tionsof  the  "  true  cross  "  enshrined  in  crosses 
of  silver,  a  crucifix,  or  an  image  of  the  Vir- 
gin, which,  trustingly  held  and  shown  to 
the  apparitions,  have  the  effect  of  rendering 
them  impotent  and  causing  them  to  vanish. 
The  Turks  have  recourse  to  the  repetition  of 
a  certain  form  of  prayer,  and  to  their  muskas 
or  amulets,  in  which  they  place  as  much 
faith  as  the  Christians  do  in  theirs. 

In  1872  the  whole  town  of  Adrianople  was 
put  in  commotion  by  the  nightly  apparition 
of  a  spectre  that  showed  itself  at  Kyik,  a  fine 
elevated  part  of  the  town,  inhabited  both  by 
Christians  and  Mussulmans.  This  imaginary 
being,  believed  to  be  a  Vrykolakas,  was  rep- 
resented to  me.  by  eye-witnesses  of  both 
creeds,  who  swore  they  had  seen  it  listening 


about  their  houses  in  the  twilight,  as  a  long, 
slim,  ugly -looking  figure,  with  a  cadaverous 
bearded  face,  clad  in  a  winding-sheet  ;  one 
of  those  restless  spirits,  in  fact,  who,  not  be- 
ing allowed  the  privilege  of  peaceful  decom- 
position in  their  tombs^  still  haunt  the  homes 
of  the  living,  tapping  at  their  doors,  making 
strange  noises,  and  casting  their  evil  influ- 
ence upon  them.  This  comedy  lasted  a  fort- 
night, during  which  in  vain  did  the  Mussul- 
man llidjux  and  the  Christian  priests  en- 
deavor, by  their  prayers  and  incantations,  to 
free  the  people  from  their  alarming  visitor. 
At  last,  it  was  rumored  that  the  only  human 
being  possessing  the  power  of  doing  so  was 
a  Turkish  Djindji,  or  sorcerer,  famous  for  his 
power  over  evil  spirits,  who  lived  in  a  town 
at  some  distance,  but  who  could  only  be  pre- 
vailed upon  to  come  by  payment  of  seven 
liras  by  the  Kyik  people.  On  the  arrival  of 
this  man  at  Adrianople  the  supposed  spirit 
disappeared.  The  belief  of  the  inhabitants 
in  the  existence  of  the  vampire  was  too 
deeply  rooted  to  allow  me  to  ascertain  who 
was  the  charlatan  that  had  benefited  by  this 
imposition  on  public  credulity.  I  questioned 
a  Greek  woman  who  had  seen  it.  She 
crossed  herself,  and  said  she  would  rather 
dispense  with  talking  on  the  subject.  On 
asking  a  Turk  his  opinion  on  the  apparition, 
he  said,  "It  must  have  been  the  spirit  of 
some  corrupt  bribe-eating  Kadi,  forbidden 
the  repose  due  to  the  remains  of  an  honest 
man,  and  come  back  to  trouble  us  with  his 
presence  after  he  has  lost  the  power  of  fleec- 
ing us  of  our  money  !" 

The  spirits  that  have  their  abodes  in  min- 
eral baths  are  specially  courted  by  the  sick, 
who  are  taken  to  the  establishments  and  left 
under  the  beneficent  care  of  these  beings. 
The  mineral  bath  of  Kainadjah,  near  Brous- 
sa,  is  a  dark  dungeon-like  place,  extremely 
old,  and  much  famed  in  the  district  for  its 
healing  powers.  Its  waters,  strongly  im- 
pregnated with  sulphur,  are  boiling  hot,  ren- 
dering the  atmosphere  of  the  bath  intolerable 
to  any  but  the  credulous,  who,  I  suppose,  sup- 
port it,  by  virtue  of  the  faith  they  place  in 
the  good  to  be  derived  from  the  trial.  A 
crippled  Turkish  woman  was  taken  to  this 
bath  at  nightfall,  with  a  written  petition  in 
her  hand  to  the  genii,  and,  according  to  the 
usual  routine,  was  left  alone  in  utter  dark- 
ness in  the  inner  bath  till  morning.  The 
spirits  of  the  place,  if  well  disposed  towards 
her  and  pleased  with  the  sacrifice  promised 
to  them,  would  be  expected  to  come  in  the 
course  of  the  night  and  attend  upon  her.  A 
copper  bowl,  left  by  the  side  of  the  patient, 
and  knocked  against  the  marble  slabs  in  case 
assistance  was  required,  was  the  only  means 
of  communication  between  the  patient  and 
her  friends  waiting  outside. 

This  woman,  for  many  years  deprived  of 
the  use  of  her  legs,  had  been  brought  from  a 
distant  part  of  the  country.  I  had  a  chat 
with  her  before  she  underwent  the  treat- 
ment. She  appeared  fully  sensible  of  the 
dangers  it  presented,  but  at  the  same  time 
confident  in  the  benefits  expected  to  be  de- 
rived, which  the  bath-women  represented  to 
her  as  being  unfailing,  owing  to  the  super- 
natural aid  the  spirits  would  be  sure  to 
accord  her.  This  cure,  of  a  nature  so  ex- 
hausting to  the  system,  and  so  telling  upon 
the  imagination,  requires  a  great  amount  of 
moral  courage  and  no  small  degree  of  physi- 
cal strength  to  carry  out. 

This  subject  was  one  of  deep  interest  to 
me,  and  my  first  care  next  morning  was  to 
visit  the  patient,  and  see  what  the  waters, 
not  the  Pi  ris,  had  done  for  her.  I  found  her 
sitting  in  the  outer  chamber  of  the  bath,  look- 
ing very  tired  and  exhausted  ;  but,  as  I  ap- 
proached, her  face  lighted  with  smiles,  and 
she  actually  stretched  out  her  feet  and  at- 
tempted to  stand  upon  them.  I  could  scarce- 
ly believe  my  eyesight  or  conceal  my  surprise 
at  this  sudden  change  in  her  condition.  Her 
friends  cried  out  in  chorus,  "  Spit  upon 
her,   and  say  Matkattah/"  while  the  bath- 


64 


THE   PEOPLE  OF  TURKEY. 


women  ceased  not  to  sound  the  praises  and 
boast  of  the  power  and  good-will  of  the  Peris 
of  their  establishment  who  had  wrought  this 
wonderful  cure,  leaving  all  the  time  no  doubt 
in  my  mind  that  the  beneficent  spirits  were 
no  other  than  the  Hantmamjis  themselves. 

The  following  is  the  account  the  patient 
gave  of  what  she  underwent  when  left  alone 
in  her  vapory  dungeon  : 

"At  first  I  felt  a  suffocating  sensation,  then 
by  degrees  a  weakness  crept  over  me,  my 
eyes  closed,  and  I  fainted  away.  I  do  not 
know  how  long  I  remained  in  that  condition, 
but  on  recovering  consciousness  I  felt  myself 
handled  by  invisible  beings,  who  silently 
pulled  and  rubbed  my  afflicted  limbs.  My 
terror  at  this  stage  was  as  great  as  my  help- 
lessness to  combat  it.  I  began  to  tremble 
and  wished  to  call  for  help  ;  when  on  the 
point  of  doing  so,  I  suddenly  found  myself 
under  the  reviving  influence  of  a  pail  of  cold 
water  suddenly  thrown  over  me.  The  shock, 
together  with  my  terror,  was  so  great  that  I 
actually  made  a  supreme  effort  to  stand  upon 
my  feet,  when,  to  my  awe  and  astonishment, 
I  discovered  that  I  had  the  power  of  doing 
so  ;  I  even  took  a  few  steps  forwards,  but  in 
the  darkness  I  could  proceed  no  further,  and, 
finding  my  voice,  began  to  call  for  help  with 
all  my  might.  The  gentle  bang  of  the  door 
for  a  moment  made  me  hope  that  my  friends 
were  within  reach  ;  but  no  !  it  was  only  the 
spirits,  who,  unwilling  to  be  seen  by  mortal 
eyes,  were  taking  their  departure.  Their 
exit  was  followed  by  the  arrival  of  my 
friends,  who,  alarmed  by  my  screams,  were 
rushing  to  my  aid.  I  was  taken  out  by  the 
advice  of  the  good  Hammantfi  Hanoum  (bath 
mistress),  and  left  to  repose  in  the  outer 
chamber  till  morning.  I  have  already  or- 
dered the  sacrifice  of  the  sheep  I  promised  to 
the  spirits,  should  they  relieve  me  of  the  in- 
fliction that  has  crippled  me  so  many  years, 
and  am  willing  to  submit  to  the  same  ordeal 
twice  more,  according  to  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  Hammamji  Hanoum,  in  order  to 
atford  tin-  Peris  I  lie  full  time  needed  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  their  task." 

Cases  of  a  similar  nut  lire  have  often  been  the 
theme  of  wonder  among  those  who  frequent- 
ed the  baths  of  Broussa,  whose  efficacious 
waters  used  annually,  and  employed  by  civ- 
ilized patients  who  resort  to  them  from  all 
parts  of  the  Empire,  are  found  salutary 
enough  without  the  services  of  the  Peris. 

Magic  plays  a  great  part  in  Turkish  affairs. 
Christians  and  Moslems,  Greeks  and  Bulga- 
rians, Turks  and  Albanians,  implicitly  be- 
lieve in  the  power  possessed  by  evil-minded 
prisons  of  casting  spells  upon  their  enemies 
or  rivals,  and  extraordinary  means  are  resort- 
ed to  with  a  view  to  removing  the  baneful 
influence.  Among  my  Uskup  reminiscences, 
which  are  none  of  the  most  pleasant,  I  re- 
member one  particularly  interesting  case, 
which  not  only  illustrates  Hie  general  belief 
of  an  ignorant  population  in  the  power  of 
spells,  but  also  presents  a  fair  picture  of  the 
way  (he  peasants  are  treated  by  their  mas- 
ters. This  instance  of  the  rape  of  a  Bulga- 
rian girl  by  a  brigand  chief  is  no  isolated 
case.  Such  things  are  the  daily  occupation 
of  Turks  in  authority  and  of  Albanian  chiefs 
who  have  forgotten  their  national  traditions 
and  have  condescended  to  ape  Turkish  man- 
ners. 

The  heroine  of  my  story  was  a  young  Bul- 
garian girl  belonging  to  the  town  of  Uskup. 
She  was  a  strong  healthy  maiden,  but  not 
the  lass  beautiful  : — a  brunette,  with  bright 
black  eyes  full  of  expression,  a  small,  well- 
shaped  mouth,  fine  teeth,  a  forehead  rather 
low,  but  broad  and  determined,  and  a  nose  in 
which  high  spirit  and  character  were  strong- 
ly marked.  Her  oval  face  would  have  been 
perfect  but  for  the  slight  prominence  of  the 
cheek-bones.  Her  jet-black  hair  fell  in  a 
number  of  braids  on  her  well-shaped  shoul- 
ders, in  fine  contrast  to  the  rich  embroidery 
of  her  Suina.  On  working  days  she  was 
seen  laboring  in  the  fields  with  her  brothers, 


where  her  cheerful  voice  would  enliven  the 
monotonous  sound  of  the  spade  ;  while  on 
feast-days  she  was  ever  the  first  to  reach  the 
common  and  lead  the  Hora  to  the  sound  of 
the  Gaida.  Her  natural  gayety  made  her 
welcome  everywhere  ;  she  was  called  "  The 
Lark  "  by  her  friends,  and  was  the  life  and 
soul  of  every  gathering.  She  had  the  happy 
assured  look  of  the  girl  who  loves  well  and  is 
loved  well  again. 

One  feast-day,  riding  by  the  common,  I 
reined  in  my  horse,  and  stopped  to  admire 
this  pretty  creature  by  the  side  of  her  hand- 
some and  intelligent-looking  lover,  gracefully 
leading  the  dance.  They  both  looked  pleased 
and  happy,  as  though  their  earthly  Paradise 
had  as  yet  known  no  shadow.  But  the  sun 
that  set  so  brightly  on  the  festivities  of  the 
day  was  darkened  on  the  morrow.  The  poor 
girl  was  going  at  dawn  to  the  harvest  field, 
with  her  bright  sickle  in  her  hand,  when 
she  was  waylaid  by  a  band  of  Albanian 
ruffians,  who  suddenly  appeared  from  behind 
a  hedge  where  they  had  been  concealed,  and 
tried  to  seize  and  carry  her  off.  The  danger 
was  sudden,  but  the  stout  hearted  girl  lost 
neither  courage  nor  presence  of  mind  ;  hold- 
ing her  sickle,  she  stood  her  ground,  bravely 
defended  herself  and  kept  her  ravishers  at 
bay.  The  Albanians,  who  make  it  a  point  of 
honor  not  to  strike  a  woman,  changed  their 
plan,  and  pointing  their  guns  at  her  brothers, 
who  stood  helpless  by  her  side,  shouted, 
"  Yield,  Bulka,  or  both  your  brothers  are 
dead  !"  A  look  of  despair  Hashed  for  a  mo- 
ment across  her  face  ;  then  folding  her  arms 
she  declared  her  readiness  to  follow  her  per- 
secutors, saying,  "  You  have  power  over  my 
person,  take  it,  and  do  your  worst ;  but  what 
is  within  here"  (pointing  to  her  head  and 
heart)  "  none  shall  have  save  the  Great  Bogha 
and  my  Tashko. " 

Mehemet  Bey,  a  brigand  chief,  was  the 
instigator  of  the  abduction.  Assisted  by  two 
subordinates,  he  placed  her  behind  him  on 
his  horse  and  galloped  off  across  the  plain  of 
the  Vardar  to  his  village.  The  brothers,  dis- 
mayed by  the  misfortune  that  had  so  unex- 
pectedly "befallen  their  sister,  ran  back  to  the 
town  and  gave  notice  to  the  venerable  bishop, 
who  at  once  proceeded  to  the  Konak  and  ac- 
quainted the  Kaimakam  with  the  details,  and 
demanded  that  the  girl  should  be  reclaimed 
and  given  up  to  him.  The  salutary  custom 
then  practised  in  cases  of  both  willing  and 
compulsory  conversion  was  that  the  neo- 
phytes should  be  placed  under  the  keeping 
of  the  bishop  in  the  Metropolis,  where  they 
were  allowed  to  remain  three  days,  enjoying 
the  benefits  of  religious  advice  and  the  good 
influence  of  their  friends.  This  excellent 
custom,  since  done  away,  had  the  best 
results.  The  prevailing  custom,  which  has 
superseded  this,  is  to  send  the  neophyte  to 
the  house  of  the  Kadi  or  governor  of  the 
town,  where  a  very  different  influence,  sel- 
dom of  a  salutary  nature,  is  exerted  during 
three  days,  when  the  presumed  convert,  often 
yielding  to  erroneous  arguments  and  false 
promises,  is  led  before  the  Court  to  declare 
his  or  her  adoption  of  the  Moslem  faith. 
This  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon 
Rayna,  our  heroine,  and  she  was  treated  by 
the  Albanian  chief  and  his  friends  by  turns 
to  threats  of  vengeance  and  every  kind  of 
flattery  and  glittering  promise.  But  the 
brave  girl  was  deaf  to  both,  and  by  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  Kaimakam  the  captive 
was  finally  brought  to  the  Metropolis,  where 
she  strongly  protested  against  the  calumnious 
accusations  brought  against  her  by  her  ene- 
mies of  having  tacitly  consented  to  her  ab- 
duction, and  demanded  to  be  led  before  the 
Court  without  delay  to  make  her  final  decla- 
ration. 

Her  captivity  had  naturally  been  a  terrible 
blow  to  her  betrothed,  and  the  joy  of  her  re- 
lease was  sadly  darkened  by  horrible  sus- 
picions of  the  dishonor  to  which  she  might 
have  been  subjected.  The  young  man  ac- 
cepted all  the  same  his  chosen  bride,  whom 


he  had  so  narrowly  escaped  losing,  and  the 
wedding-day  was  fixed. 

The  bridegroom's  home  was  so  situated, 
that  from  the  windows  of  my  room  I  could 
see  into  it.  The  family  consisted  of  an  aged 
Bulgarian  woman  and  her  son,  a  furrier  by 
trade.  A  week  before  the  ceremony  took 
place,  the  old  lady  might  be  seen  working 
away  at  the  preparations  for  the  coming 
event.  The  house  was  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  whitewashed  ;  the  copper  pots,  pans,  and 
dishes,  and  the  china  and  glass,  indispen- 
sable decorations  of  the  shelves  that  adorn  the 
walls  of  every  well-to-do  Bulgarian  trades- 
man's house,  were  in  their  turn  brought 
down,  made  bright  and  shining,  and  then  re- 
turned to  their  places.  All  the  carpets  were 
then  produced,  in  extraordinary  quantity, 
and  of  all  colors,  dimensions,  and  qualities. 
These  were  stretched  on  mattresses,  sofas,  on 
the  floors  of  the  rooms  and  on  the  veranda. 
The  cellar  was  next  visited,  and  no  small 
quantity  of  its  fluid  contents  brought  forth. 
Uskup  is  the  only  towTn  in  Turkey  in  which 
I  have  noticed  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the 
female  population  to  indulge  in  drink  ;  they 
do  not,  however,  practise  this  vice  in  public, 
nor  is  an  inebriated  woman  ever  seen  in  the 
country.  Finally  the  provisions,  consisting 
of  an  abundant  supply  of  flour,  rice,  butter, 
honey,  and  fruits  were  collected,  and  all 
seemed  in  readiness.  The  future  bride- 
groom, however,  who  appeared  ill  and  dis- 
pirited, took  no  very  active  part  in  the  ar- 
rangements, and  I  frequently  observed  1dm 
sitting  on  the  veranda  silent  and  dull,  smok- 
ing cigarette  after  cigarette  ;  his  mother  oc- 
casionally whisking  round  and  reprimanding 
him  in  strong  Bulgarian  language,  to  which 
he  would  sometimes  respond  by  a  few  words 
and  at  others  would  heave  a  deep  sigh  and 
leave  the  house. 

1  went  to  see  the  bride  on  the  day  she  was 
brought  to  her  new  home.  She  looked  very 
pretty  in  her  bright  bridal  costume,  but  her 
fine  eyes  had  lost  something  of  their  lustre 
and  her  cheeks  much  of  their  wonted  bloom. 
She  looked  serious  and  concerned  ;  her  hus- 
band, dull  and  dispirited.  As  they  stood  up 
to  make  the  first  formal  round  of  the  dance, 
I  noticed  the  difference  in  their  step, 
formerly  so  light,  now  heavy  and  sorrowful. 
As  they  turned  round,  slowly  measuring 
their  steps  to  the  music  of  the  gaida,  not  a 
smile  parted  their  lips,  not  a  cheerful  word 
was  heard  from  the  rest  of  the  company. 
The  poor  bride  noticed  this,  and  a  few  tears 
dropped  from  her  eyes  ;  but  her  cup  of  sor- 
row was  not  yet  full.  A  suspicious-looking 
woman,  famous  for  her  deep  knowledge  of 
witchcraft,  entered  ;  taking  aside  the  bride- 
groom, she  whispered  something  in  his  ear 
which  seemed  to  impress  him  deeply.  This 
bird  of  ill  omen  left  behind  her  a  chill  which 
all  seemed  to  feel.  When  the  week's  feast- 
ing was  at  tin  end,  the  gossips  began  to  chat 
over  the  event,  all  agreeing  that  a  duller  wed- 
ding had  never  taken  place  in  their  town, 
and  prophesying  all  sorts  of  misfortunes  to 
the  young  couple.  I  frequently  saw  them 
from  my  windows,  and  noticed  that  they  did 
indeed  seem  far  from  happy.  The  husband 
looked  morose,  was  seldom  at  home,  and 
during  those  intervals  was  always  in  bad 
humor  and  disputing  with  his  mother,  and 
quarrelling  with  his  wife,  who  was  oftener 
crying  than  laughing. 

The  gossiping  tongues  of  the  neighbors 
were  once  more  loosed,  and  the  report  was 
spread  that  the  bridegroom  was  laboring 
under  the  influence  of  a  magical  spell  cast 
upon  him  by  his  disappointed  rival,  the  Al- 
banian chieftain,  and  that  he  was  conse- 
quently zaverza.  This  spell  cast  upon  men 
is,  among  other  devices,  operated  by  means 
of  the  locking  of  a  padlock  by  a  sorcerer, 
who  casts  the  lock  into  one  well  and  the  key 
into  another.  This  is  supposed  actually  to 
lock  up  every  feeling  and  faculty  of  the  indi- 
vidual against  whom  it  is  directed,  and  to  ren- 
der him  insensible  to  the  impressions  of  love. 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


65 


This  spell,  implicitly  believed  in  and  much 
feared  by  all  the  ignorant  people  of  the  coun- 
try, requires  the  assistance  of  a  professional 
to"  remove  its  malignant  effects.  The  unhap- 
py couple,  after  many  miserable  months, 
resolved  to  have  recourse  to  the  sorceress 
before  mentioned,  and  after  the  husband  had 
undergone  the  remedies  prescribed  by  her 
everything  went  well,  and  my  heroine  once 
again  became  happy.  Such  is  the  force  of 
Imagination. 

The  antidotes  employed  in  these  cases 
consist  of  quicksilver  and  other  minerals, 
placed  with  water  in  a  basin,  called  the 
Meras  Tan,  or  Heritage-Bowl,  a  very  rare  ves- 
sel, highly  prized  for  its  virtues,  and  en- 
graved with  forty-one  padlocks.  The  water 
is  poured  from  this  bowl  over  the  head  of  the 
afflicted  person  during  the  seven  weeks  fol- 
lowing Easter.  At  Monastir,  this  ablutionary 
performance  is  held  in  a  ruined  mill  called 
Egri  Deirmen,  where  every  Thursday  during 
this  period  may  be  seen  a  heterogeneous 
gathering  of  Turks,  Jews,  Bulgarians,  Wal- 
lachians,  Albanians,  and  Greeks,  young  and 
old,  male  and  female,  who  resort  to  the  spot, 
and  for  the  modest  payment  of  a  copper  coin 
receive  the  benefits  of  an  anti-magical  wash. 
Every  one  who  has  been  to  the  place  will  at- 
test the  beneficial  effect  of  this  rite,  and  so 
deeply  rooted  is  the  belief  in  the  influence  of 
magic  in  the  minds  of  these  people  that  even 
those  who  may  have  wished  to  free  them- 
selves from  what  they  almost  admit  to  be  a 
superstition,  say  that  they  are  led  back  by 
the  incontrovertible  evidence  they  see  of  its 
effects  on  the  persons  against  whom  it  is  em- 
ployed. 

Most  of  the  spells  cast  upon  persons  are 
aimed  at  life,  beauty,  wealth,  and  the  affec- 
tions. They  are  much  dreaded,  and  the 
events  connected  with  this  subject  that  daily 
occur  are  often  of  a  fatal  character.  A  Turk- 
ish lady,  however  high  her  position, invariably 
attributes  to  the  influence  of  magic  the  neg- 
lect she  experiences  from  her  husband,  or  the 
bestowal  of  his  favor  on  other  wives.  Every 
Hanoum  I  have  known  would  go  down  to 
the  laundry  regularly  and  rinse  with  her  own 
hands  her  husband's  clothes  after  the  wash, 
fearing  that  if  any  of  her  slaves  performed 
this  duty  she  would  have  the  power  of  cast- 
ing spells  to  supplant  her  in  her  husband's 
good  graces.  Worried  and  tormented  by 
these  fears,  she  is  never  allowed  the  comfort 
of  enjoying  in  peace  that  conjugal  happiness 
which  mutual  confidence  alone  can  give.  A 
buyu  boghcha  (or  magic  bundle)  may  at  any- 
time be  cast  upon  her,  cooling  her  affection 
for  her  husband,  or  turning  his  love  away 
from  her.  The  blow  may  come  from  an  en- 
vious mother-in-law,  a  scheming  rival,  or 
from  the  very  slaves  of  whose  services  the 
couple  stand  daily  in  need.  A  relative  of 
Sultan  Abdul-Meojid  assured  me  that  on  the 
death  of  that  gentle  and  harmless  Padishah 
no  fewer  than  fifty  buyuboglwlias  were  found 
hidden  in  the  recesses  of  his  sofa.  All  these 
were  cast  upon  the  unfortunate  sovereign  by 
the  beauties  who,  appreciated  for  a  short  time 
and  then  superseded  by  fresh  favorites,  tried 
each  to  perpetuate  her  dominion  over  him. 

During  a  conversation  I  recently  had  with  a 
Turkish  lady  of  high  position,  who  had  spent 
seventeen  years  of  her  life  in  the  seraglio 
of  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz,  I  happened  to  refer  to 
the  eccentricities  occasionally  displayed  by 
that  Sultan.  She  looked  reproachfully  at  me 
and  exclaimed,  "How  can  you  accuse  the 
memory  of  our  saintly  master  of  eccentricity 
■when  every  one  knows  it  was  the  effect  of 
magic?"  and,  adding  action  to  her  words, 
she  began  to  enumerate  on  the  tips  of  her 
fingers  all  the  persons  who  had  a  special  in- 
terest in  having  recourse  to  this  practice  in 
order  to  bewilder  the  mind  of  the  Sultan. 
"The  first  schemer,"  said  she,  "is  the 
Valide  Sultana,  desirous  of  peipetuating  her 
influence  over  the  mind  of  her  son.  The 
next  is  the  Grand  Vizir,  in  the  hope  of  fur- 
ther ingratiating  himself   with  his  master. 


Then  comes  the  Kislar  Aga,  chief  of  the 
eunuchs,  with  a  host  of  women,  all  disputing 
with  each  other  the  affection  of  the  Sultan. 
If  ten  out  of  twelve  of  these  fail  in  their  at- 
tempt the  machinations  of  t~o  will  be  sure 
to  succeed,  and  these  two  suffice  to  bewilder 
the  mind  of  any  man.  When  our  lamented 
master  was  driven  out  of  his  palace,  and  the 
furniture  removed  from  his  chamber,  buyu 
boghchas  were  found  even  under  the  mats  on 
the  floor.  These,  taken  up  by  some  good 
women  that  still  venerated  his  memory,  were 
thrown  into  the  sea  or  consumed  by  fire." 

The  buyu  boghcha  is  composed  of  a  number 
of  incongruous  objects,  such  as  human  bones, 
hair,  charcoal,  earth,  besides  a  portion  of  the 
intended  victim's  garment,  etc.,  tied  up  in  a 
rag.  When  it  is  aimed  at  the  life  of  a  per- 
son, it  is  supposed  to  represent  his  heart,  and 
is  studded  with  forty-one  needles,  intended 
to  act  in  a  direct  manner  and  finally  cause 
his  death.  Two  of  these  bundles,  of  a  less 
destructive  nature,  were  thrown  into  my 
house  ;  on  another  occasion  two  hedgehogs, 
also  considered  instruments  of  magic  and 
forerunners  of  evil,  were  cast  in.  All  these 
dreaded  machinations  had,  however,  no  other 
effect  on  me  beyond  exciting  my  curiosity  to 
know  their  perpetrator  ;  but  they  occasioned 
great  fear  to  my  native  servants,  who  were 
continually  expecting  some  fatal  calamity  to 
happen  in  consequence. 

The  advice  of  magicians,  fortune-tellers, 
dream-expounders,  and  quack  astrologers  is 
always  consulted  by  persons  desirous  of  be- 
ing enlightened  upon  any  subject  Stolen 
property  is  believed  to  be  recoverable  through 
their  instrumentality,  and  the  same  faith  is 
placed  in  them  as  a  European  victim  of  some 
wrong  would  put  in  the  intelligence  and 
experience  of  a  clever  detective.  Some  of 
these  individuals  are  extremely  acute  in  ar- 
riving at  the  right  solution  of  the  mystery. 
Their  power,  dreaded  by  the  suspected  par- 
ties as  sure  to  result  in  some  unforeseen 
calamity,  is  a  moral  pressure  which,  when 
set  to  work  upon  the  superstitious,  succeeds 
beyond  expectation.  The  following  is  an 
example  of  the  hold  that  superstition  has 
over  the  minds  of  the  most  enlightened 
Turks.  A  Pasha,  who  had  been  ambassador 
at  Paris,  and  whose  wit,  liberal  ideas,  and 
pleasant  manners  were  highly  appreciated  in 
European  circles,  was  appointed  in  his  more 
mature  years  Governor-General  of  Broussa 
during  the  reign  of  Abdul-Medjid.  During 
his  travels  he  had  collected  a  splendid  lib- 
rary, the  finest  ornament  of  his  house. 
These  books  gave  umbrage  to  an  old  sheikh, 
who  possessed  unlimited  influence  over  the 
Pasha.  The  old  fanatic  had  mentally  vowed 
the  destruction  of  these  writings  of  the  infi- 
del, and  by  means  of  his  eloquence  and  by 
prophetic  promises  he  so  worked  upon  the 
governor's  superstitious  feelings  as  to  induce 
him  to  sacrifice  his  library,  which  was 
brought  down  into  the  court-yard  and  made 
into  a  bonfire.  The  recompense  for  this  act 
of  abnegation,  according  to  the  sheikh,  was 
to  be  the  possession  of  the  much-coveted  post 
of  Grand  Vizir.  Strange  to  say,  a  short  time 
afterwards  the  Pasha  was  called  to  occupy 
that  position  ;  but  its  glory  and  advantages 
were  enjoyed  by  him  for  the  short  period  of 
three  days  only — a  poor  recompense  for  his 
sacrifice. 

Belief  in  the  evil  eye  is  perhaps  more  deeply 
rooted  in  the  mind  of  the  Turk  than  in  that 
of  any  other  nation,  though  Christians,  Jews, 
and  even  some  Franks  regard  it  as  a  real 
misfortune.  It  is  supposed  to  be  cast  by 
some  envious  or  malicious  person,  and  sick- 
ness, death,  and  loss  of  beauty,  affection,  and 
wealth  are  ascribed  to  it.  Often  when  pay- 
ing visits  of  condolence  to  Turkish  harems, 
I  have  heard  them  attribute  the  loss  they 
have  sustained  to  the  Nazar.  I  knew  a  beau- 
tiful girl,  who  was  entirely  blinded  and  dis- 
figured by  small-pox,  attribute  her  misfor- 
tune to  one  of  her  rivals,  who,  envying  in 
her  the  charms  she  did  not  herself  possess, 


used  to  look  at  her  with  the  peculiar  fena  gus 
(bad  expression)  so  much  dreaded  by  Turk 
ish  women.  When  the  misfortune  happened, 
the  ignorant  mother,  instead  of  reproaching 
herself  for  her  neglect  in  not  having  had  her 
daughter  vaccinated,  lamented  her  want  of 
foresight  in  having  omitted  to  supply  her 
with  the  charms  and  amulets  that  would 
have  averted  the  calamity. 

A  lady  who  had  lost  a  beautiful  and  valu- 
able ring  that  had  attracted  the  attention  of 
an  envious  acquaintance,  when  relating  to 
me  the  circumstance  with  great  pathos,  at- 
tributed her  loss  solely  to  the  evil  eye  cast 
upon  it  by  her  friend. 

I  knew  a  lady  at  Broussa  whose  eye  was  so 
il  readed  as  to  induce  her  friends  to  fumigate 
their  houses  after  she  had  paid  them  a  visit. 
She  happened  to  call  upon  my  mother  one 
evening  when  we  were  sitting  under  a  splen- 
did weeping  willow-tree  in  the  garden.  She 
looked  up  and  observed  that  she  had  never 
seen  a  finer  tree  of  its  kind.  My  old  nurse 
standing  by  heard  her  observation,  and  no 
sooner  had  our  visitor  departed  than  she 
suggested  that  some  garlic  should  at  once  be 
hung  upon  it  or  it  would  surely  come  to  grief. 
We  all  naturally  ridiculed  the  idea,  but,  as 
chance  would  have  it,  that  very  night  a  storm 
uprooted  the  willow.  After  this  catastrophe 
the  old  woman  took  to  hanging  garlic  every- 
where, and  would  have  ornamented  me  with 
it  had  I  not  rebelled. 

At  Uskup  the  finest  horse  in  the  town  was 
my  Arab,  which  was  said  to  excite  the  ad- 
miration and  envy  of  the  Albanians,  whose 
love  for  fine  horses  is  well  known.  Often 
after  having  been  out  he  was  pronounced 
Kazan 'u  by  our  faithful  kavass  and  the  groom, 
and  was  at  once  taken  to  a  sheikh  of  great 
repute  in  the  town,  who  read  prayers  over  it, 
pulled  its  ears,  and  after  breaking  an  egg  on 
its  forehead,  sent,  it  back  with  every  assur- 
ance that  it  was  Sinnanh  (cured).  Finding 
that  my  pet  was  none  the  worse  for  this 
strange  treatment  (for  which  I  was  never 
allowed  to  pay  by  my  excellent  friend  the 
old  sheikh),  and  seeing  that  it  afforded  grati- 
fication to  my  people,  I  allowed  them  to  take 
it  as  often  as  they  liked. 

Visiting  one  day  the  nursery  of  a  friend, 
we  found  the  baby,  six  months  old,  divested 
of  its  clothing  and  stretched  on  a  square  of 
red  cloth,  while  the  old  Greek  nurse,  much 
concerned  about  the  ailing  condition  of  her 
charge,  which  she  attributed  to  the  effects  of 
the  evil  eye,  was  presiding  over  the  following 
operation  performed  by  an  old  hag  of  the 
same  nation  in  order  to  free  the  infant  from 
the  supposed  influence.  Little  heaps  of 
hemp,  occupying  the  four  corners  of  the 
cloth,  were  smoking  like  miniature  altars  ; 
their  fumes,  mingling  with  the  breathings 
and  incantations  of  the  old  enchantress, 
offered  a  strange  contrast  to  the  repeated 
signs  of  the  cross  made  by  her  on  the  baby's 
body,  ending  in  a  series  of  gymnastic  contor- 
tions of  its  limbs.  The  child  soon  recovered 
his  wonted  liveliness,  and  seemed  to  enjoy 
the  process,  crowing  and  smiling  all  the  time. 

Should  you  happen  to  fix  your  gaze  on  a 
person  or  object  in  the  presence  of  ill-disposed 
Turks,  you  are  liable  to  receive  rude  remarks 
from  them  under  the  idea  that  you  are  cast- 
ing the  evil  eye.  Some  months  ago  two 
Turkish  boys,  belonging  to  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal families  of  the  town  of  R ,  attracted 

the  attention  of  some  Christian  children  who 
stood  by,  and  who  were  forthwith  violently 
assaulted  by  the  servants  of  the  little  boys, 
who  called  out,  "  You  little  giaours  !  how 
dare  you  look  in  this  manner  at  our  young 
masters  and  give  them  the  evil  eye  ?"  The 
cries  of  the  children  brought  some  shop- 
keepers to  the  spot,  who  with  some  difficulty 
rescued  them  from  this  unprovoked  attack. 

The  preservatives  employed  against  the 
power  of  this  evil  are  as  numerous  as  the 
means  used  to  dissipate  its  effects.  The 
principal  preventives  and  antidotes  are  gar- 
lic, cheriot,  wild  thyme,  boar's  tusks,  hares' 


60 


THE  PEOPLE  OF   TURKEY. 


heads,  terebinth,  alum,  blue  glass,  turquoise, 
pearls,  the  bloodstone,  carnelian,  eggs  (prin- 
cipally those  of  the  ostrich),  a  gland  extracted 
from  the  neck  of  the  ass,  written  amulets, 
and  a  thousand  other  objects.  The  upper 
classes  of  the  Christians  try  to  avert  its  effect 
by  sprinkling  the  afflicted  persons  with  holy 
water,  fumigating  them  with  the  burning 
branches  of  the  palms  used  on  Palm  Sunday, 
and  by  hanging  amulets  round  their  necks  : 
as  preservatives,  coral,  blue  glass  ornaments, 
and  crosses  are  worn.  The  common  people 
of  all  denominations  resort  to  other  means  in 
addition  to  these.  The  Bulgarians,  for  in- 
stance, take  six  grains  of  salt,  place  them  on 
each  eye  of  the  afflicted  person,  and  then  cast 
them  into  the  Are  with  a  malediction  against 
the  person  supposed  to  have  caused  the  evil. 
They  also  take  three  pieces  of  burning  char- 
coal, place  them  in  a  green  dish,  and  making 
the  sign  of  the  cross  pour  water  over  them. 
Part  of  this  liquid  is  drunk  by  the  victim, 
who  also  washes  his  face  and  hands  in  it  and 
then  throws  the  remainder  on  the  ground 
outside  the  house. 

On  the  last  day  of  February  (old  style),  they 
take  the  heads  of  forty  small  fish,  and  string 
and  hang  them  up  to  dry.  When  a  child  is 
found  ailing  from  the  supposed  effects  of  the 
evil  eye,  the  heads  are  soaked  in  water,  and 
the  horrible  liquid  given  to  it  to  drink.  It  is 
considered  a  good  test  of  the  presence  of  the 
evil  eye  to  place  cloves  on  burning  coals  and 
carry  them  round  the  room.  Should  many 
of  these  explode,  some  malicious  person  is 
supposed  to  have  left  the  mischievous  effects 
of  the  Nazar  behind  bun. 

Blue  or  gray  eyes  are  more  dreaded  than 
dark  ones,  and  red-haired  persons  are  partic- 
ularly suspected.  Great  circumspection  is 
observed  in  expressing  approbation,  admira- 
tion or  praise,  of  anything  or  an j  body,  as  all 
Orientals  live  in  a  continual  state  of  dread  of 
the  effects  of  the  fena  guz. 

Besides  the  belief  in  spirits,  magic,  and 
Other  supernatural  powers,  public  credulity 
in  the  East  is  apt  to  accept  as  facts  a  variety 
of  matters  not  less  absurd  and  often  more 
injurious.  In  spring,  for  instance,  a  popular 
idea  prevails  that  blood  in  some  manner  or 
other  must  be  drawn  from  the  body  in  order  to 
cool  the  system  and  render  it  healthy  for  the 
summer.  Part  of  the  population  will  appeal 
to  the  barber,  part  to  professed  phlebotomists, 
others  to  the  application  of  leeches.  Super- 
stition requires  that  vipers  should  be  medicin- 
ally used  in  spring  ;  the  gypsies  undertake  to 
collect  these  and  sell  them  alive  to  the  in- 
habitants of  towns.  I  remember  seeing  one 
of  these  reptile-hunters  carry  a  bagful  of 
them  on  his  back  against  a  sheepskin-coat. 
A  passer-by  being  attracted  by  their  move- 
ments, visible  through  the  bag,  took  hold  of 
it,  but  no  sooner  had  he  done  so  than  he  paid 
dearly  for  his  curiosity  by  being  severely 
bitten  by  one  of  them.  Freshly  hilled  an- 
nuals, such  as  frog3,  birds,  etc. ,  are  often  ap- 
plied to  suffering  members  of  the  body. 

Croup  is  cured  by  amulets  procured  from 
the  Ilodjas  and  hung  round  the  neck  of  the 
child.  Turkish  women  have  often  assured 
me  that  this  remedy  is  never  known  to  fail, 
and  consequently  they  resort  to  no  other. 
Square  pieces  of  paper,  bearing  written  in- 
scriptions, are  given  for  a  few  piastres  by 
learned  Ilodjas  to  persons  whose  dwellings 
are  infested  with  vermin.  These  are  nailed 
on  the  four  walls  of  an  apartment,  and  are 
believed  to  have  the  power  of  clearing  it  of 
its  obnoxious  tenants.  Going  into  the  room 
of  one  of  my  servants  one  day  at  Adrianople, 
1  found  a  cucumber  -  boat  occupying  each 
corner.  On  inquiring  why  they  were  placed 
there,  an  old  servant  answered  that,  being 
inconvenienced  by  the  too  plentiful  visitation 
of  vermin,  she  had  appealed  to  a  person  at 
Kyik,  whose  magical  influence,  conveyed  in 
cucumbers,  was  stated  to  be  infallible  in  driv- 
ing the  creatures  away  I  tried  to  analyze 
the  contents  of  these  receptacles,  but  finding 
them  a  mess  composed  of  charcoal,  bones, 


bits  of  written  paper,  hair,  etc.,  I  soon  de- 
sisted, hoping  that  it  would  prove  more 
efficacious  than  it  promised. 

The  Bulgarian  remedy  for  this  pest,  al- 
though simpler  in  form,  can  hardly  be  more 
effective.  It  consists  of  a  few  of  these  insects 
being  caught  on  the  1st  of  March,  inclosed  in 
a  reed,  and  taken  to  the  butcher,  their  cre- 
dentials being  couched  in  the  following 
terms  :  ' '  Here  is  flesh,  here  is  blood  for 
you  to  deal  with  ;  take  them  away  and  give 
us  something  better  in  exchange." 

Another  means  of  getting  rid  of  serpents, 
venomous  insects,  and  vermin,  is  made  use  of 
by  the  Bulgarians  on  the  last  day  of  Febru- 
ary ;  it  consists  in  beating  copper  pans  all 
over  the  houses,  calling  out  at  the  same  time, 
"  Out  with  you,  serpents,  scorpions,  fleas, 
bugs,  and  flies  1"  A  pan  held  by  a  pair  of 
tongs  is  put  outside  in  the  court-yard. 

Mohammedans  execrate  the  Christian  faith, 
and  Christians  the  Mohammedan  faith,  but 
both  in  cases  of  incurable  diseases  have  re- 
course reciprocally  to  each  other's  'Ayuia/xara 
(holy  wells),  the  sacred  tombs  of  the  saints, 
and  to  the  prayers  of  the  clergy  of  both 
creeds.  I  have  often  seen  sick  Turkish  chil- 
dren taken  to  the  Armenian  church  at 
Broussa,  and  heard  prayers  read  over  them 
by  Armenian  priests.  I  have  also  seen  Chris- 
tian children  taken  to  Ilodjas  to  be  blown 
and  spat  upon,  or  have  the  visitation  of  in- 
termittent fever  tied  up  by  means  of  a  piece 
of  cotton-thread  twisted  round  the  wrist. 

I  happened  one  day  to  be  making  some 
purchases  from  a  Jew  pedler  at  the  gate, 
when  a  Turkish  woman  passing  by  came 
quietly  up  to  the  old  man,  and  before  he 
could  prevent  her,  made  a  snatch  at  his  beard 
and  pulled  out  a  handful.  The  unfortunate 
Hebrew,  smarting  under  the  pain  and  insult, 
asked  the  reason  for  her  cruelty.  "  Oh, "  she 
answered,  "  I  did  not  intend  to  insult  or  hurt 
you  ;  but  my  daughter  has  had  fever  for  a 
long  time,  and  as  all  remedies  that  I  have 
tried  have  proved  vain,  I  was  assured  that 
some  hairs  snatched  from  the  beard  of  an 
Israelite  and  used  to  fumigate  her  with  would 
be  sure  to  cure  her. "  She  then  tied  up  her 
stolen  treasure  in  her  handkerchief  and 
walked  away  with  it. 

Dreams  play  a  great  part  in  Eastern  life. 
The  young  girl,  early  taught  to  believe  in 
them,  hopes  to  perceive  in  these  transient 
visions  a  glimpse  of  the  realities  that  arc 
awaiting  her  ;  the  married  woman  seeks,  in 
their  shadowy  illusions,  the  promise  of  the 
continuation  of  the  poetry  of  life,  and  firmly 
believes  in  the  coming  realities  they  are  sup- 
posed to  foreshadow  ;  while  the  ambitious 
man  tries  to  expound  them  in  favor  of  his 
hopes  and  prospects,  often  guiding  his  ac- 
tions by  some  indistinct  suggestion  they  con- 
vey to  his  mind.  When  a  Greek  woman  has 
had  a  remarkable  dream,  she  will  consult 
her  "Ovupo,  or  book  of  dreams,  the  Bulgarian 
will  gossip  over  it  with  her  neighbors,  often 
accepting  their  interpretation,  and  the  Turk- 
ish woman  will  do  the  same,  but  if  not  satis- 
fied with  the  explanations  given,  she  has 
the  alternative  of  consulting  the  Hodja,  who 
will  find  a  better  meaning  in  his  "  learned 
books." 

A  projected  contract  of  marriage  is  often 
arrested  by  the  unfavorable  interpretation  of 
a  dream,  or  a  marriage  that  had  not  previ- 
ous^ been  imagined  is  entered  into  under 
the  same  influence.  The  vocations  of  a  man 
may  be  changed  by  a  dream,  and  the  desti- 
nies of  a  family  trusted  to  its  guidance. 
Dreams  are  often  used  as  a  medium  of  dis- 
covering truth,  and  are  efficacious  instru- 
ments in  the  hands  of  those  who  know  how 
to  use  them.  A  Turkish  servant  was  sus- 
pected by  one  of  my  friends  of  having  stolen 
a  sum  of  money  which  she  missed  from  her 
safe.  The  lady  called  in  the  woman  and  said 
to  her,  "  Nasibeh,  I  dreamed  last  night  that 
while  I  was  out  the  other  day  you  walked 
into  my  room  ana  took  the  money  that  was 
there.       The  culprit,  taken  by  surprise,  ex- 


claimed, with  too  much  earnestness,  "  I  did 
not  take  it ! "  My  friend  responded,  ' '  I  have 
not  accused  you  of  having  taken  it,  but  since 
you  deny  it  so  earnestly  you  are  open  to  sus 
picion.  H  the  money  is  not  there  you  must 
have  taken  it."  After  a  little  pressure  the 
woman  confessed  that,  tempted  by  the 
Sheytan,  she  had  done  so,  but  that  she  would 
give  it  back,  promising  to  be  honest  for  the 
future.  She  was  retained  in  her  situation, 
and,  be  it  said  to  her  credit,  was  never  again 
found  guilty. 

The  most  trivial  circumstances  connected 
with  the  birth  of  a  child  are  considered  of 
good  or  bad  omen  according  to  the  interpre- 
tation given  to  them.  Trifling  accidents 
happening  on  a  wedding-day  have  also  their 
signification  ;  so  have  the  breaking  of  a  look- 
ing-glass, the  accidental  spilling  of  oil,  sweep- 
ing the  house  after  the  master  has  left  it  to 
go  on  a  journey,  the  meeting  of  a  funeral  or 
of  a  priest,  a  hare  crossing  the  path,  and  a 
thousand  other  every-day  occurrences.  The 
Turks,  after  cutting  their  nails,  will  never 
throw  away  the  parings,  but  carefully  keep 
them  in  cracks  of  the  walls  or  the  boards, 
where  they  are  not  likely  to  be  scattered 
about.  This  is  based  on  the  idea  that  at  the 
resurrection  day  they  will  be  needed  for  the 
formation  of  new  ones. 

Sultan  Mahmoud,  the  grandfather  of  the 
present  Sultan,  was  in  his  bath  when  the 
news  of  the  birth  of  his  son  Abdul- Aziz  was 
announced  to  him.  The  tidings  are  said  to 
have  made  him  look  sad  and  thoughtful  ;  he 
heaved  a  deep  sigh,  and  expressed  his  regret 
at  having  been  informed  of  the  event  when 
divested  of  his  clothing,  saying  it  was  a  bad 
omen,  and  his  son  was  likely  to  leave  his 
people  as  naked  as  the  news  of  his  birth  had 
found  his  father.  Unfortunately  for  the 
nation,  this  prediction  was  but  too  exactly 
realized. 

Predictions  have  great  influence  over  the 
Mohammedan  mind.  On  the  eve  of  great 
battles,  or  on  the  occasion  of  any  great  polit- 
ical change,  prophecies  are  consulted  and 
astrologers  appealed  to,  to  prognosticate  the 
issue  of  tin:  corning  event.  Many  of  these 
individuals  have  paid  with  their  heads  for 
the  non-fulfilment  of  their  prophecies. 

The  last  prediction  in  circulation  at  Stam- 
boul,  uttered  since  the  death  of  Sultan  Abdul- 
Aziz,  says  that  seven  sultans  must  succeed 
each  other,  most  of  them  dying  violent 
deaths,  before  the  Empire  will  be  secure. 

While  living  at  a  farm  near  Broussa,  situ- 
ated a  few  miles  from  the  town,  not  far  from 
the  ruins  of  a  fine  old  hostelry  called  the 
"  Bloody  Khan,"  my  mother  was  one  moon 
light  night  accosted  by  an  old  Turk  while  wo 
were  out  walking.  He  was  a  stranger  in 
the  place,  tall  and  handsome,  with  a  snowy 
beard  falling  upon  his  slightly  bent  chest.  A 
peculiar,  restless  look  about  the  eyes,  and  the 
numerous  scars  that  covered  his  bare  breast 
and  face  were  evident  indications  that  what- 
ever his  present  calling  might  be,  his  past 
life  must  have  been  a  stormy  and  adven- 
turous one.  He  walked  quietly  towards  us, 
and  stopping  before  my  mother,  with  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  respect  mingled  with  pater- 
nal familiarity,  said  to  her,  "  Kuzim,  gel! 
(Daughter,  come  !)  I  have  a  secret  to  reveal 
to  you. "  My  mother  followed  him,  and  half 
amused  and  wholly  incredulous  listened 
to  the  following  recital.  Pointing  to  the 
"  Bloody  Khan,"  which,  being  situated  upon 
the  principal  road  leading  into  the  interior, 
had  once  been  occupied  by  a  band  of  forty 
robbers,  he  said,  "  I  was  the  chief  of  the 
band  of  brigands  that  occupied  that  Khan. 
You  must  know  its  story.  Forty  years  have 
passed  during  which  my  faithful  followers 
have  been  caught,  killed,  or  dispersed,  leav 
ing  me  the  sole  representative  of  the  band. 
A  timely  repentance  of  my  evil  ways  led  mo 
to  make  a  Tube  vow  and  renounce  the  old 
trade.  I  have  since  lived  in  peace  with  Allah 
and  with  men.  I  have  sworn  to  lay  violent 
hands  on  no  man's  property  more  j  but  my 


THE   PEOPLE  OF  TURKEY. 


07 


couscience  does  not  rebel  against  attempting 
to  recover  what  I  had  buried  beneath  yonder 
wall.     I  want  your  powerful  concurrence  to 
dig  out  this  buried  treasure,  the  greater  part 
of  which  will  be  yours."     My  mother  natur- 
ally refused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  the 
affair.    Seeing  her  unwillingness,  the  old  mau 
tried  all  his  powers  of  persuasion  to  induce 
her  to  take  part  in  his  plan,  saying,  "  On  me, 
my  daughter,  be  the  sin.     I  will  rest  content 
with  a  small  portion  of  what  will  be  recov- 
ered, all  the  rest  I  abandon  to  you  !"     Find- 
ing this  last  inducement  had  no  more  effect 
than  his  previous  promises,  he  turned  away, 
saying,  "  Since  you  refuse  I  must  seek  some- 
body else."     Among  the  few  Mohammedan 
inhabitants  of  the  small  village   his  choice 
fell  upon  the  Imam,  whose  enterprising  face 
promised  the  old  man  better  success.      The 
cunning  Imam,  on  hearing  the  brigand's  tale, 
being   persuaded  of    its  veracity,    at    once 
promised  his  assistance,  mentally  deciding, 
however,  that  he  would  be  the  only  one  to 
profit  by  the  hidden  treasure.      He  at  once 
began  to  make  use  of  the  usual  stratagem  of 
superstition,   which  could  alone  secure  the 
success  of  his  plan.     Telling  the  old   man 
that  according  to  his  books  ill-gained  wealth 
must  be  in  the  possession  of  evil  spirits,  and 
that  in  order  to  guard  themselves  against 
their  influences  during  their  digging  enter- 
prise, and  to  prevent  the  treasure  from  turn- 
ing into  charcoal,  a  peculiar  process  of  ap- 
peasing and  soothing  incantations  would  be 
needed ;  but  that  he  would  at  once  proceed 
to  perform  these,  and  at  the  first  crowing  of 
the  cock  all  would  be  ready,  and  they  would 
proceed  together  to  the  spot  and  unearth  the 
treasure.     The  credulous  old  chief  stroked 
his  beard,  and  said  that  with  Allah's  help  and 
the  good-will  of  the  Peris  by  the  next  day 
they  would  be  rich  men.    In  the  course  of 
the  night,  as  arranged,  the  two,  spade    in 
hand,  leading  the  Imam's  horse  bearing  sad- 
dle bags,  proceeded  to  the  spot.     The  Imam 
commenced  operations  by  surrounding  him- 
self and  his  companion  with  as  many  magi- 
cal observances  as  he  could  invent.     Telling 
him  to  remove  the  first  spadeful  of  earth, 
they  went  on  digging  alternately  until  a  hol- 
low" sound  told  the  sharp  ear  of  the  Imam 
that  the  distance  between  them  and  the  cov- 
eted wealth  was  not  great.     He  threw  down 
his  spade,  and   again  resorting   to   magical 
mummeries    declared  that  the  danger  was 
imminent,  as  the  spell  foretold  resistance  on 
the  part  of  the  spirits,  and  a  refusal  to  yield 
possession  unless  a  goat  were  at  once  sacri- 
ficed to  them.     "Go,"  said  he,  earnestly, 
"  back  to  the  mosque,  and  in  the  small  cham- 
ber you  will  find  three  goats  ;  take  the  milk- 
white  one  and  bring  it  here.     Do  not  hurry 
it  much,  but  lead  it  gently,  as  becomes  the 
virtue  of  the  off  ering. "     The  old  man,  noth- 
ing   doubting,    with    Turkish  nonchalance 
went  quietly  back  to  the  village,  which  lay 
about  three  miles  distant.     The  Imam  once 
rid  of  him,  and  when  in  no  danger  of  being 
seen  or  beard,  set  actively  to  work,  got  out 
the  treasure,  placed  it  in  his   saddle-bags, 
mounted,  and  rode  off,  and  was  never  seen 
or  heard  of  in  the  village  again.     The  old 
man  returned  in  due  time,  accompanied  by 
the  goat,  to  find  nothing  but  his  spades,  the 
pile  of  earth,    and  the  gaping  hole.     Dis- 
gusted, disappointed,  and  enraged,  he  came 
back  to  the  village,  and  early  next  morning 
made  his  appearance  at  the  farm.     Inquiring 
for  my  mother,  he  acquainted  her  with  the 
pitiable  results  of  bis  attempt.     This  time  the 
curiosity  of  the  whole  family  was  roused,  and 
we  all  proceeded  in  a  body  to  the  spot.     The 
old  man's  assertions  proved  to  be  perfectly 
correct,  and  my  brother,  upsetting  part  of  the 
upturned  earth,  discovered  a  handsome  silver 
dish  and  cup,  which  we  took  home  with  us 
as  trophies  of  the  strange  adventure. 

The  following  strange  incident  happened 
at  Broussa  when  I  was  a  child.  Incredible 
as  it  may  appear,  its  authenticity  cannot  bs 
disputed,  and  a  statement  of  the  fact  may 


be  found  in  the  Consular  Reports  made  at  the  ' 
time  to  the  Foreign  Office  : 

The  monotonous  life  of  the  inhabitants  of 
this  romantic  old  city,  which  a  French 
improvi&ateur  justly  designated  as  un  tombeau 
convert  de  roses,  was  one  morning  startled  by 
the  arrival  of  a  band  of  fifty  or  sixty  wild- 
looking  people  —  men,  women,  and  a  few 
children.  None  knew  whence  they  came  or 
what  they  wanted.  Some  of  them,  dressed 
as  Fakirs,  spoke  bad  Turkish  ;  the  rest  used 
a  guttural  dialect  unintelligible  to  any  but 
themselves.  Their  costume,  composed  of  a 
sheet  or  wrapper,  left  their  arms,  legs,  and 
tattooed  breasts  bare  ;  white  turbans,  from 
under  which  a  quantity  of  matted  hair  hung, 
covered  the  heads  of  the  men.  The  women, 
whose  arms  and  breasts  were  bare,  wore 
brass  and  bead  ornaments,  large  rings  in  their 
ears,  and  a  sheet  over  their  heads.  They 
were  fine,  strongly-built  people,  with  regular 
features  and  bronzed  skins.  This  nomad 
baud,  which  was  conjectured  to  have  come 
from  some  distant  part  of  Central  Asia,  took 
up  its  quarters  at  Bournabashi,  a  beautiful 
spot  outside  the  walls  of  the  town,  where  a 
grove  of  cypress  trees  shelter  a  fine  mauso- 
leum containing  the  saintly  rsmains  of  one 
of  the  first  chieftains  who  accompanied  Sul- 
tan Orkhan  and  settled  in  the  city  after  the 
conquest.  His  shrine,  much  venerated  by 
the  Mohammedans,  is  a  resort  for  pilgrims, 
who  may  often  be  seen  performing  their  ab- 
lutions at  the  cool  fountains  by  the  side  of 
the  vale,  or  devoutly  bending  to  say  their 
namaz  under  the  shade  of  the  imposing  trees, 
having  lighted  tapers  on  the  tomb. 

It  must  have  been  some  mysterious  legend 
connected  with  the  life  and  deeds  of  this  re- 
puted saint,  mixed  up,  as  most  Oriental  le- 
gends are,  with  the  supernatural,  that,  finding 
its  way  back  to  his  native  land,  and  discov- 
ered or  expounded  centuries  later  by  his  sav- 
age kindred,  led  them  to  undertake  this  long 
journey  and  do  homage  at  the  tomb  of  the 
Emir.  Their  actions  seem,  however,  to  have 
been  prompted  partly  by  interested  motives, 
for  their  legend  seems  mysteriously  to  have 
stated  that  great  riches  had  been  buried  with 
him,  whose  possession  was  only  attainable  by 
human  sacrifice.  The  easy  consciences  of 
the  fanatics  do  not  appear  to  have  felt  any 
scruples  with  regard  to  the  means  they  were 
to  use,  and  in  their  zeal,  stimulated  by  their 
greed  for  gain  and  by  superstition,  they  un- 
dertook the  long  journey  that,  after  perhaps 
months  of  hardship  and  toil,  led  them  to  their 
goal. 

The  day  after  their  arrival  they  were  seen 
in  twos  and  threes  scouring  the  town,  cross- 
ing and  recrossing  all  its  streets  under  the 
pretext  of  begging,  but,  as  subsequently 
discovered,  with  the  real  object  of  kidnap- 
ping children.  According  to  their  confession, 
forty  was  the  number  needed,  whose  fat 
boiled  down  was  to  be  moulded  into  tapers, 
which,  burning  day  and  night  on  the  tomb 
of  the  Emir,  were  to  soften  the  spirits  into 
complaisance  and  induce  them  to  give  up  the 
treasure  they  guarded  in  its  original  state, 
and  not  in  charcoal,  as  would  be  the  case  if 
this  all-important  part  of  the  operation  were 
omitted  by  the  searchers.  The  news  of  the 
appearance  of  the  kidnappers,  with  some 
inkling  of  their  object,  soon  spread  through 
the  town  and  began  to  terrorize  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Christian  quarters,  where  they 
were  principally  seen  loitering,  when  palpa- 
ble evidence  of  their  operations  was  brought 
before  the  English  Consul  by  the  timely  res- 
cue of  two  Armenian  children,  who  had  been 
half  strangled,  one  being  brought  in  insensi- 
ble and  the  other  having  on  its  throat  the 
deep  and  bleeding  nail-marks  of  the  two 
ruffians  from  whose  hands  the  children  had 
been  rescued  by  some  passers-by,  who  inter- 
rupted the  murderous  work  as  it  was  being 
executed  in  the  sombre  archway  of  a  ruined 
old  Roman  bridge  crossing  the  ravine  that  in- 
tersects the  town.  The  Consul  at  once  pro- 
ceeded to  the  Governor  and  requested  that 


the  case  should  at  once  be  iooked  into.  But 
the  sacred  character  of  Fakir  protecting  some 
of  these  men  made  public  investigation  diffi- 
cult, and  the  authorities  hushed  up  the  mat- 
ter, and  only  signified  to  the  band  that  they 
must  renounce  their  project  and  leave  the 
country.  They  did  so,  expressing  their  deep 
regrot  at  the  want  of  faith  of  the  authorities, 
and  bitterly  reproaching  them  with  their  re- 
fusal to  co-operate  tacitly  with  their  desire. 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

ISLAM  IN  TURKEY. 

Religions  Parties— The  Ulema  and  Sottas— Conser- 
vatism— Imams,  Muftis,  and  Kadis  or  Mollahs— Cor- 
ruption— The  Dervishes— Their  Influence  over  the 
People  —  A  Dervish  Fanatic  in  Bulgaria  —  Various 
Orders  of  Dervishes— Revolving  and  Howling  Der- 
vishes—The Bektashis— A  Frank  Sheikh— Ceremonies 
of  Islam— Friday  at  the  Mosque — The  Prayers— Rama- 
zan — A  Night  in  Ramazan— Pilgrimage — Kismet. 

The  religion  of  the  Turks  is  properly  the 
orthodox  or  Sunni  form  of  Islam,  the  doc- 
trines of  which  are  too  well  known  to  require 
description  here.  But  the  subject  is  compli- 
cated by  the  fact  that  there  is  a  considerable 
opposition  between  the  popular  and  the 
"respectable"  religion.  The  Established 
Church,  so  to  speak,  of  Turkey  is  governed 
by  the  Ulema,  or  learned  men  trained  in  the 
mosques,  often  supported  by  pious  endow- 
ments. The  popular  faith,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  led  by  the  various  sects  of  der- 
vishes, between  whom  anu  the  Ulema  there 
exists  an  unconquerable  rivalry.  Some  ac- 
count of  these  two  parties  is  essential  to  any 
description  of  the  people  of  Turkey. 

The  Ulema  are  the  hereditary  expounders 
of  the  Koran,  to  the  traditional  interpretation 
of  which  they  rigidly  adhere.  They  have 
nothing  to  say  to  the  many  innovations  that 
time  has  shown  to  be  needful  in  the  religion 
of  Mohammed,  and  they  brand  as  heretics  all 
who  differ  a  hair's-breadth  from,  the  old  es- 
tablished line.  The  result  of  this  uncom- 
promising orthodoxy  has  been  that  the  Ule- 
ma, together  with  their  subordinates  the  Sof- 
tas  (a  sort  of  Moslem  undergraduates),  have 
managed  to  preserve  an  esprit  de  corps  and  a 
firm  collected  line  of  action  that  is  without 
a  parallel  in  Turkish  parties. 

Midhat  Pasha  and  his  party  perceived  this, 
and  mafic  use  of  the  Ulema  as  tools  to  effect 
their  purpose  ,  but  as  soon  as  the  coup  d'etat 
was  completed,  Midhat  Pasha's  first  care 
was  to  free  himself  as  much  as  possible  from 
further  obligations  towards  them,  and  to 
break  up  their  power  by  exile,  imprisonment, 
and  general  persecution.  He  understood  that 
if  left  to  acquire  further  ascendency  in  pub- 
lic affairs,  great  mischief  would  ensue.  The 
Ulema  were  clamoring  loudly  for  reforms  ; 
but  the  reforms  they  demanded  were  those 
of  the  ancient  Osmanlis  and  the  execution  of 
the  Shcriat  or  Koran  laws,  which,  equitable 
as  they  are  among  Mohammedans,  would 
not  improve  the  condition  of  the  rayah. 
Herein  lies  the  chief  reason  why  reforms  in 
Turkey  remain  for  the  most  part  a  dead  let- 
ter. The  Koran  has  no  conception  of  the 
possiblity  of  Christian  subjects  enjoying  the 
same  rights  as  their  Moslem  neighbors.  No 
judge,  therefore,  likes  to  go  against  this 
spirit ;  and  no  good  Mohammedan  can  ever 
bring  himself  to  a  level  with  a  caste  marked 
by  his  Prophet  with  the  brand  of  inferiority. 
Midhat  Pasha,  thoroughly  cognizant  of  this 
fact,  could  not  enter  into  a  pact  with  the 
Ulema,  the  strictest  observers  of  the  Koran 
law,  and  at  the  same  time  satisfy  the  urgent 
demands  of  Europe  in  favor  of  the  Christian 
subjects  of  the  Porte.  He  did  the  best  he 
knew  in  the  midst  of  these  difficulties,  and 
produced  his  constitution.  This  was  con- 
strued in  one  light  to  the  Mohammedans, 
and  in  another  to  the  Christians  ;  whilst  it 
was  intended  to  pacify  Europe  by  insuring, 
nominally  at  least,  the  reforms  demanded  by 
her  for  the  rayahs.  Nobody,  however,  be- 
lieved in  the  Constitution.  The  Mohamme- 
dans never  meant  to  carry  it  into  execution  ; 
and  Europe,  in  its  divided  opinions  on  the 


88 

subject,  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  it  sub- 
merged in  the  vortex  of  succeeding  events. 

The  order  of  Ulema  is  divided  into  three 
classes  :  the  Imams,  or  ministers  of  relig- 
ion ;  the  Muftis,  doctors  of  the  law  ;  and  the 
Kadis  or  Mollahs,  judges.  Each  of  these 
classes  is  subdivided  into  a  number  of  others, 
according  to  the  rank  and  functions  of  those 
that  compose  it. 

The  imams,  after  passing  an  examination, 
are  appointed  by  the  Sheikh  ul  Islam  to  the 
office  of  priests  in  the  mosques.  The  fixed 
pay  they  receive  is  small,  about  Ql.  or  71.  per 
annum.  Some  mosques  have  several  imams. 
Their  functions  are  to  pronounce  the  prayer 
aloud  and  guide  the  ceremonies.  The  chief 
imam  has  precedence  over  the  other  imams, 
the  muezzins  (callers  to  prayer),  the  khatibs, 
hodjas,  and  other  servants  of  the  mosque. 

In  small  mosques,  however,  all  these  func- 
tions are  performed  by  the  imam  and  the 
muezzin.  Imams  are  allowed  to  marry,  and 
their  title  is  hereditary.  Should  the  son  be 
unlettered,  he  appoints  a  deputy  who  per- 
forms his  duties.  Imams,  generally  speak- 
ing, are  coarse  and  ignorant,  and  belong  to 
the  lower-middle  class  of  Turkish  society. 
Their  influence  in  the  parish  is  not  great, 
and  the  services  they  fulfil  among  their  com- 
munities consist  in  assisting  in  the  parish 
schools,  giving  licenses,  and  performing  the 
ceremonies  of  circumcision,  marriage,  and 
of  washing  and  burying  the  dead.  They 
live  rent  free,  often  deriving  annuities  from 
church  property.  The  communities  pay  no 
fixed  fees,  but  remuneration  is  given  every 
time  the  services  of  the  imam  are  required 
by  a  family.  No  Mohammedan  house  can 
be  entered  by  the  police  unless  the  imam  of 
the  parish  takes  the  lead  and  is  the  first  to 
knock  at  the  door  and  cross  the  threshold. 
Should  the  search  be  for  a  criminal  in  cases 
of  adultery,  and  the  charge  be  brought  by 
the  imam  himself  certifying  the  entrance  of 
the  individual  into  the  house,  and  the  search 
prove  fruitless,  the  imam  is  liable  to  three 
mouths'  imprisonment.  A  case  of  the  kind 
happened  a  few  years  ago  to  a  highly  respect- 
able imam  in  Stamboul,  who,  having  for 
some  time  noticed  the  disorderly  conduct  of 
a  hanoum  of  his  parish,  gave  evidence,  sup- 
ported by  his  two  mukhtars,  or  parish  offi- 
cers, of  having  seen  some  strangers  enter  the 
house.  The  search  leading  to  no  discovery,  j 
the  hanoum  demanded  reparation  for  her 
wounded  honor,  and  the  three  functionaries 
were  cast  into  prison.  The  imam,  on  being 
released,  cut  his  throat,  unable  to  survive  the 
indignation  he  felt  at  seeing  the  evidence  of 
three  respectable  persons  slighted  and  set 
aside  before  the  protestations  of  false  virtue, 
backed  by  bribes. 

This  is  one  of  the  strange  licenses  of  Turk- 
ish law.  Crime  is  not  punished  unless  its 
actual  commission  is  certified  by  eye-wit- 
nesses ;  this  is  the  reason  that  evidence  of 
crime  committed  during  the  night  is  not  ad- 
mitted as  valid  by  the  laws  of  the  country. 
The  imams,  under  the  pressure  of  this  law, 
think  twice  before  they  give  evidence  ;  nor 
do  they  much  like  the  unpleasant  duty  of 
accompanying  police  inspections,  from  which 
they  generally  excuse  themselves. 

The  muftis,  or  doctors  of  the  law,  rank 
next :  seated  in  the  courts  of  justice,  they 
receive  the  pleas,  examine  into  the  cases, 
and  explain  them  to  the  mollah,  according 
to  their  merits  or  the  turn  they  may  wish  to 
give  to  them.  There  is  very  general  com- 
plaint against  the  corruption  of  these  men,  in 
whose  hands  lies  the  power  of  misconstru- 
ing the  law. 

The  moUaTis  or  tofts  form  the  next  grade  in 
the  Ulema  hierarchy.  They  are  appointed 
by  the  Sheikh  ul  Islam,  and  are  assisted  in 
their  functions  by  the  muftis  and  other  offi- 
cials. 

The  avarice  and  venality  of  this  body  of 
men  are  among  the  worst  features  of  Turk- 
ish legislature.  Few  judges  are  free  from 
the   reproach  of  partiality  and  corruption. 


THE   PEOPLE  OF   TURKEY. 

Their  verdicts,  delivered  nominally  in  accord- 
ance with  Koranic  law,  are  often  gross  mis- 
interpretations of  the  law,  and  the  fetvahs  or 
sentences  in  which  they  are  expressed  are 
given  in  a  sense  that  complicates  matters  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  render  a  revisal  of  the 
case  useless,  and  redress  hopeless,  unless  the 
pleader  is  well  backed  by  powerful  protec- 
tors, or  can  afford  to  spend  vast  sums  in 
bribes — when,  perhaps,  he  may  sometimes, 
after  much  trouble  and  delay,  obtain  jus- 
tice. 

The  Kadi  Asker  of  Roumelia  and  the  Kadi 
Asker  of  Anatolia  come  next  in  rank  as  su- 
preme judges  ;  the  former  of  Turkey  in  Eu- 
rope, and  the  latter  of  Turkey  in  Asia  ;  they 
sit  in  the  same  court  of  justice  as  the  Sheikh 
ul  Islam. 

This  Sheikh  ul  Islam,  or  Grand  Mufti  of 
the  capital,  is  the  spiritual  chief  of  Islam  and 
the  head  of  the  legislature.  He  is  appointed 
by  the  Sultan,  who  installs  him  in  his  func- 
tions with  a  long  pelisse  of  sable.  The  Sul- 
tan can  deprive  him  of  his  office,  but  not  of 
life  so  long  as  he  holds  his  title,  nor  can  he 
confiscate  his  property  when  in  disgrace. 

The  chief  function  of  the  Grand  Mufti  is 
to  interpret  the  Koran  in  all  important  cases. 
His  decisions  are  laconic,  often  consisting  of 
"  Yes"  or  "  No."  His  opinions,  delivered  in 
accordance  with  the  Koran,  are  not  backed 
by  motive. 

In  instances  of  uncertainty  he  has  a  way 
of  getting  out  of  the  difficulty  by  adding 
"God  is  the  best  judge."  His  decrees  are 
called  fetvahs,  and  he  signs  himself,  in  the 
common  formula,  "  the  poor  servant  of 
God."  He  is  assisted  in  his  functions  by  a 
secretary  called  the  fetvah  emine,  who  in 
cases  of  minor  importance  directs  the  pleas 
and  presents  them  all  ready  for  the  affixing 
of  the  mufti's  seal. 

The  influence  of  the  Sheikh  ul  Islam  is 
great,  and  powerful  for  good  or  harm  to  the 
nation,  according  to  his  character,  and  the 
amount  of  justice  and  honesty  he  may  dis- 
play in  his  capacity  of  Head  of  Islam  and  su- 
preme judge.  This  influence,  however,  be- 
ing strictly  Mohammedan,  and  based  on 
rigid  religious  dogmas,  cannot  be  expected  to 
carry  with  it  that  spirit  of  tolerance  and  liber- 
ality which  a  well  regulated  government  must 
possess  in  all  branches  of  the  administrative 
and  executive  power.  Instances,  however,  in 
which  Sheikhs  ul  Islam  have  shown  strict 
honesty,  justice,  and  even  a  certain  amount 
of  enlightened  tolerance,  have  not  been  un- 
f  requent  in  the  annals  of  Turkey,  in  the  set- 
tlement of  disputes  between  Mussulmans  and 
non-Mussulmans. 

I  have  heard  several  curious  stories  about 
the  Grand  Muftis  of  this  century.  Whilst 
Lord  Stratford  was  ambassador  at  Constanti- 
nople, one  of  the  secretaries  had  an  audience 
with  the  Sheikh  ul  Islam,  who  at  the  mo- 
ment of  his  visitor's  entrance  was  engaged  in 
the  performance  of  his  namaz.  The  secre- 
tary sat  down  while  the  devotee  finished  his 
prayers,  which  were  ended  by  an  invocation 
to  Allah  to  forgive  a  suppliant  true  believer 
the  sin  of  holding  direct  intercourse  with  a 
Giaour.  His  conscience  thus  relieved,  the 
old  mufti  rose  from  his  knees  and  smilingly 
welcomed  his  guest.  But  this  guest,  who 
was  a  great  original,  in  his  turn  begged 
permission  to  perform  his  devotions.  He 
gravely  went  through  an  Arabic  formula, 
and  ended  by  begging  Allah  to  forgive  a 
good  Christian  the  crime  of  visiting  a  "  faith- 
less dog  of  an  infidel."  The  astonished  old 
mufti  was  nettled,  but  with  true  Oriental  im- 
perturbability he  bore  the  insult. 

A  late  Grand  Mufti  was  greatly  respected, 
and  appealed  to  from  all  directions  for  the 
settlement  of  new  and  old  lawsuits,  which 
he  is  said  to  have  wound  up  with  strict  im- 
partiality and  justice  ;  but  at  the  same  time 
lie  always  urged  upon  the  disputants  the  ad- 
vantages of  coming  to  an  amicable  arrange- 
ment. 

One  of  his  friends,  observing  that  this  ad- 


vice systematically  accompanied  the  wind- 
ing-up of  the  case,  asked  the  dignitary  why, 
being  sure  of  having  delivered  a  just  sen- 
tence, he  recommended  this  friendly  arrange- 
ment? "Because,"  said  the  mufti,  "the 
world  nowadays  is  so  corrupt,  and  the  use 
of  false  witnesses  so  common,  that  I  believe 
in  the  honesty  of  none  ;  and  my  conscience 
is  free  when  I  have  obtained  something  in 
favor  of  the  loser  as  well  as  the  winner.  ' 

From  the  time  of  the  annexation  of  Egypt 
and  Syria  by  Selim  the  Inflexible,  the  title  of 
Khalif,  or  Vicar  of  God,  was  assumed  by 
the  Turkish  Sultan  ;  but  although  this  title 
gives  him  the  power  of  a  complete  autocrat, 
no  Sultan  can  be  invested  with  the  Imperial 
dignity  unless  the  Mollah  of  Konia,  a  descend- 
ant of  the  Osmanjiks,  and  by  right  of  his 
descent  considered  holy,  comes  to  Constanti- 
nople, and  girds  the  future  sovereign  with 
the  sword  of  Othman  ;  on  the  other  hand,  a 
Sultan  cannot  be  deposed  unless  a  Fetvah  of 
the  Sheikh  ul  Islam  decrees  his  deposition, 
or,  if  by  consent  of  the  nation,  his  death. 

Such,  then,  are  the  Ulema — the  clergy,  so 
to  speak,  of  the  Established  Church  of  Islam 
in  Turkey.  They  are  the  ultra-conservative 
party  in  the  nation  in  things  political  as  well 
as  things  religious.  "  Let  things  be,"  is  the 
motto  of  the  Sheikh  ul  Islam  and  his  most 
insignificant  Kadi.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
this  should  be  so.  Trained  in  the  meagre 
curriculum  of  the  Medresse,  among  the  dry 
bones  of  traditional  Moslem  theology,  it 
would  be  astonishing  if  these  men  were  aught 
but  narrow,  ignorant,  bigoted  ;  and  chained 
in  the  unvarying  circle  of  the  Ulema  world 
they  have  no  chance  of  forgetting  the  teach- 
ing of  their  youth.  But  this  does  not  ex- 
plain the  fact  that  nine  out  of  ten  Moslem 
judges  are  daily  guilty  of  injustice  and  the 
taking  of  bribes. 

The  Ulema  entertain  a  cordial  hatred  for 
the  dervishes,  whose  orthodoxy  they  deny, 
and  whose  influence  over  the  State  and  the 
people  alike  (hey  dread.  The  dervish's  title 
to  reverence  does  not,  like  his  rival's,  rest 
upon  his  learning  and  his  ability  to  misinter- 
pret the  Koran  ;  it  rests  on  his  supposed 
inspiration.  On  this  ground,  as  well  as  on 
account  of  his  reputed  power  of  working 
miracles,  and  the  general  eccentricity  of  his 
life,  he  is  regarded  by  the  people  with  ex- 
treme veneration.  His  sympathies,  more- 
over, arc  with  the  masses ;  ofttimes  he 
spends  his  life  in  succoring  them  ;  whilst 
his  scorn  for  the  wealthy  and  reputable 
knows  no  bounds.  Hence  the  people  believe 
in  the  dervishes  in  spite  of  the  ridicule  and 
persecution  of  the  Ulema  ;  and  even  the 
higher  classes  become  infected  with  this 
partly  superstitious  veneration,  and  seek  to 
gain  the  dervish's  blessing  and  to  avoid  his 
curse  ;  and  often  a  high  dignitary  has  turned 
pale  at  the  stern  denunciation  of  the  wild- 
looking  visionary  who  does  not  fear  to  say 
his  say  before  the  great  ones  of  the  land. 
Sultan  Mahmoud  was  once  crossing  the 
bridge  of  Galata  when  he  was  stopped  by  a 
dervish  called  "the  hairy  sheikh. "  "Gia- 
our Padishah,"  he  cried,  in  a  voice  shaken 
with  fury,  seizing  the  Sultan's  bridle,  "art 
thou  not  yet  content  with  abomination? 
Thou  wilt  answer  to  God  for  all  thy  godless- 
ness  !  Thou  art  destroying  the  institutions 
of  thy  brethren ;  thou  revilest  Islam  and 
drawest  the  vengeance  of  the  Prophet  upon 
thyself  and  us."  The  Sultan  called  to  his 
guards  to  clear  "  the  fool  "  out  of  the  way. 
"la  fool !"  screamed  the  dervish.  "It  is 
thou  and  thy  worthless  counsellors  who  have 
lost  your  senses  !  To  the  rescue,  Moslems  ! 
The  Spirit  of  God,  who  hath  anointed  me, 
and  whom  I  serve,  urges  me  to  proclaim  the 
truth,  with  the  promise  of  the  reward  of  the 
saints."  The  next  day  the  visionary  was 
put  to  death  ;  but  it  was  declared  that  the 
following  night  a  soft  light  was  shed  over  his 
tomb,  which  is  still  venerated  as  that  of  a 
saint. 

But  it  needed  a  bold  man  like  the  reformer- 


THE   PEOPLE  OF  TURKEY. 


CO 


Sultan  to  put  a  noisy  fanatic  to  death  ;  and 
even  in  his  case  the  wisdom,  as  well  as  the 
humanity,  of  the  act  may  be  questioned. 
Most  grandees  would  think  twice  before  they 
offended  a  dervish.  For  popular  credulity 
accords  to  these  strange  men  extraordin- 
ary powers — the  gift  of  foreknowledge,  the 
power  of  working  miracles,  and  of  enduring 
privations  and  sufferings  beyond  the  limits 
of  ordinary  human  endurance ;  and,  not 
least,  these  enthusiasts  are  believed  to  have 
the  power  of  giving  people  good  or  evil 
wishes,  which  never  fail  to  come  to  pass,  and 
which  no  human  action  can  resist. 

In  spite  of  this  apparently  fanatical  and 
charlatan  character,  there  is  much  that  is 
liberal  and  undogmatical  about  the  dervishes. 
I  have  certainly  met  with  many  broad- 
minded,  tolerant  men  among  the  sheikhs  of 
their  orders,  and  have  been  struck  by  the 
charm  of  their  conversation  no  less  than  their 
enlightened  views  and  their  genuine  good -will 
towards  mankind. 

On  the  other  hand,  though  asceticism  is 
part  of  the  dervish's  creed,  and  though  there 
be  among  them  really  honest  and  great  men, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  a  good  many  der- 
vishes entertain  not  the  faintest  scruples 
about  intoxication  and  a  good  many  other 
pleasures  which  do  not  seem  very  strictly  in 
accordance  with  their  vows.  Among  the 
wandering  dervishes  many  savage  and  thor- 
oughly bad  characters  are  to  be  met  with. 
They  roam  from  country  to  country  ;  cli- 
mate, privation,  hardships  of  all  kinds,  deter 
them  not ;  they  come  from  all  lands  and  they 
go  to  all  lands,  but  those  of  Persia  and  Bok- 
hara surpass  the  rest  in  cunning,  fanaticism, 
and  brutality.  There  is  no  vice  into  which 
some  of  them  do  not  plunge  ;  and  all  the 
time  they  display  a  revolting  excess  of  relig- 
ious zeal,  couched  in  the  foulest  and  most 
abusive  vocabulary  their  language  affords. 

One  of  these  wretches  once  stopped  my  car- 
riage under  the  windows  of  the  Governor's 
house  at  Monastir,  and  before  the  kavass  had 
time  to  interfere  he  had  jumped  in  and  was 
vociferating  "  Giaour"  and  a  host  of  other 
invectives  in  my  face.  It  was  lucky  the 
guard  was  near  and  prompt  in  arresting  him. 
Next  day  he  was  packed  out  of  the  town  for 
the  fourth  time. 

Notwithstanding  their  vices,  nothing  can 
exceed  the  veneration  in  which  the  dervishes 
are  held  by  the  public,  over  whom  they  exer- 
cise an  irresistible  influence.  This  influence 
is  especialty  made  use  of  in  time  of  war, 
when  a  motley  company  of  sheikhs  and  fan- 
atical dervishes  join  the  army,  and  encourage 
the  officers  and  men  by  rehearsing  the  bene- 
fits promised  by  the  Prophet  to  all  who  fight 
or  die  for  the  true  faith.  The  voices  of  these 
excited  devotees  may  be  heard  crying,  "  O 
ye  victorious  !"  "  O  ye  martyrs  !"  or  "  Yal- 
lah  !"  Some  of  these  men  are  fearful  fanat- 
ics, who  endeavor  by  every  means  in  their 
power  to  stimulate  the  religious  zeal  of  the 
troops  and  of  the  nation.  Every  word  they 
utter  is  poison  to  public  peace.  Among  the 
numerous  gangs  of  infatuated  zealots  that 
spread  themselves  over  the  country  just  be- 
fore the  outbreak  of  the  troubles  in  Bulgaria, 
there  was  one  wandering  dervish  who  special- 
ly distinguished  himself  by  the  pernicious 
influence  his  prophecies  and  adjurations  ob- 
tained over  the  minds  of  the  Mohammedan 
population,  exciting  them  against  their  Chris- 
tian neighbors,  who  were  completely  "  ter- 
rorized" by  his  denunciations. 

The  venerable  Bishop  of  the  town  of  L 

related  to  me  the  visit  he  had  received  from 
this  dangerous  individual,  and  assured  me 
that  this  fanatic  was  in  some  measure  the 
cause  of  the  lamentable  events  that  fol- 
lowed. 

He  first  appeared  in  the  town  of  X , 

where,  after  preaching  his  death  mission 
among  the  Mohammedans  a  few  days  before 
die  Greek  Easter,  he  walked  up  to  the  quar- 
ter of  the  town  occupied  by  some  of  the 
principal  Christian  families,  and  knocking  at 


each  door  entered  and  announced  to  the  in- 
mates that  Allah  had  revealed  to  him  His 
pleasure  and  His  decrees  for  the  destruction 
of  the  infidels  within  the  third  day  of  Easter. 
On  reaching  the  dwelling  of  the  Bishop  he 
requested  a  personal  interview,  and  made  the 
same  declaration  to  him. 

The  Bishop,  with  some  of  the  leading  in- 
habitants, alarmed  at  this  threatening  speech, 
proceeded  at  once  to  the  Governor-General, 
and  related  the  incident  to  him.  The  der- 
vish was  sent  for,  and,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Bishop  and  his  companions,  asked  if  he  had 
said  what  was  reported  of  him,  and  what  he 
meant  by  such  an  assertion.  The  dervish 
merely  shrugged  his  shoulders,  and  said  that 
he  was  in  his  hal,  or  ecstatic  state,  and  could 
not  therefore  be  answerable  for  what  he 
talked  about.    The  Pasha  sent  him  under 

escort  to  the  town  of  A ,  with  a  letter  to 

the  governor  of  that  place  requesting  his  ex- 
ile to  Broussa  ;  but  the  wily  ascetic  soon 
managed  to  escape  the  surveillance  of  the 
police  of  A— — ,  and  continued  his  mission 
in  other  parts  of  Bulgaria. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  enter  into  details  as 
to  the  constitution  of  the  various  dervish  or- 
ders (of  which  there  are  many),  or  the  tenets 
held  by  them,  or  the  ceremonies  of  initiation 
and  of  worship.  Still,  a  few  words  are  nec- 
essary about  the  two  or  three  leading  orders 
of  dervishes  in  Turkey.  The  most  graceful 
are  the  Mevlevi,  or  revolving  dervishes,  with 
their  sugar-loaf  hats,  long  skirts,  and  loose 
jubbes.  Once  or  twice  a  week  public  ser- 
vice is  performed  at  the  Mevlevi  Khane,  to 
which  spectators  are  admitted.  The  devo- 
tions begin  by  the  recital  of  the  usual  namaz, 
a*fter  which  the  sheikh  proceeds  to  his  pistiki, 
or  sheepskin  mat,  and  raising  his  hands  of- 
fers with  great  earnestness  the  prayer  to  the 
Pir,  or  spirit  of  the  founder  of  the  order, 
asking  his  intercession  with  God  on  behalf 
of  the  order.  He  then  steps  off  his  pistiki 
and  bows  his  head  with  deep  humility  to- 
wards it,  as  if.it  were  now  occupied  by  his 
Pir ;  then,  in  slow  and  measured  step,  he 
walks  three  times  round  the  Semar  Khane, 
bowing  to  the  right  and  left  with  crossed 
toes  as  he  passes  his  seat,  his  subordinates 
following  and  doing  the  same.  This  part  of 
the  ceremony  (called  the  Sultan  Veled  Devri) 
over,  the  sheikh  stands  on  the  pisti/ei  with 
bowed  head,  while  the  brethren  in  the 
mutrib,  or  orchestra,  chant  a  hymn  in  honor 
of  the  Prophet,  followed  by  a  sweet  and  har- 
monious performance  on  the  flute. 

The  Semar  Zan,  director  of  the  perform- 
ance, proceeds  to  the  sheikh,  who  stands  on 
the  edge  of  his  pistiki,  and,  after  making  a 
deep  obeisance,  walks  to  the  centre  of  the 
hall,  and  gives  a  signal  to  the  other  brethren, 
who  let  fall  their  temwuris,  take  off  their 
jubbes,  and  proceed  in  single  file  with  folded 
arms  to  the  sheikh,  kiss  his  hand,  receive  in 
return  a  kiss  on  their  hats,  and  there  begin 
whirling  round,  using  the  left  foot  as  a  pivot 
while  they  push  themselves  round  with  the 
right.  Gradually  the  arms  are  raised  up- 
wards and  then  extended  outwards,  the  palm 
of  the  right  hand  being  turned  up  and  the 
left  bent  towards  the  floor.  With  closed 
eyes  and  heads  reclining  towards  the  right 
shoulder  they  continue  turning,  muttering 
the  inaudible  zikr,  saying,  "  Allah,  Allah  !" 
to  the  sound  of  the  orchestra  and  the  chant 
that  accompanies  it,  ending  with  the  excla- 
mation, "  O  friend  !"  when  the  dancers  sud- 
denly cease  to  turn.  The  sheikh,  still  stand- 
ing, again  receives  the  obeisance  of  the  breth- 
ren as  they  pass  his  pistiki,  and  the  dance  is 
renewed.  When  it  is  over,  they  resume 
their  seats  on  the  floor,  and  are  covered  with 
their  jubbes.  The  service  ends  with  a  prayer 
for  the  Sultan. 

The  whole  of  the  ceremony  is  extremely 
harmonious  and  interesting  :  the  bright  and 
variegated  colors  of  the  dresses,  the  expert 
and  graceful  way  in  which  the  dervishes 
spin  round,  bearing  on  their  faces  at  the 
same  time  a  look  of  deep  humility  and  devo- 


tion, together  with  the  dignified  attitude  and 
movements  of  the  sheikh,  combine  to  form  a 
most  impressive  sight. 

Equally  curious  are  the  Itifa'i,  or  howling 
dervishes.  They  wear  a  mantle  edged  with 
green,  a  belt  in  which  are  lodged  one  or  three 
big  stones,  to  compress  the  hunger  to  which 
a  dervish  is  liable,  and  a  white  felt  hat 
marked  with  eight  grooves  (terks),  each  de- 
noting the  renunciation  of  a  cardinal  sin.  In 
their  devotions  they  become  strangely  excit 
ed,  their  limbs  become  frightfully  contorted, 
their  faces  deadly  pale  ;  then  they  dance  in 
the  most  grotesque  manner,  howling  mean 
while  ;  cut  themselves  with  knives,  swallow 
fire  and  swords,  burn  their  bodies,  pierce 
their  ears,  and  finally  swoon.  A  sacred 
word  whispered  by  two  elders  of  the  order 
brings  the  unconscious  men  round,  and  their 
wounds  are  healed  by  the  touch  of  the 
sheikh's  hand,  moistened  from  his  mouth.  It 
is  strange  and  horrible  to  witness  the  ceremo- 
nies of  this  order  ;  but  in  these  barbarous  per- 
formances the  devout  recognize  the  working 
of  the  Divine  Spirit. 

But  the  order  which  is  admitted  to  be  the 
most  numerous  and  important  in  Turkey  is 
that  of  the  Bektashis.  Like  all  dervish  or- 
ders, they  consider  themselves  the  first  and 
greatest  religious  sect  in  the  universe  ;  and 
for  this  they  have  the  following  excellent 
reason.  One  day  their  founder,  lladji  Bek- 
tash,  and  some  of  his  followers  were  sitting 
on  a  wall,  when  they  saw  a  rival  dervish  ap- 
proaching them,  mounted  upon  a  roaring 
lion,  which  he  chastised  by  means  of  a  ser- 
pent which  he  held  in  his  hand  as  a  whip. 
The  disciples  marvelling  at  this,  Hadji  Bek- 
tash  said  :  "  My  brothers,  there  is  no  merit 
in  riding  a  lion  ;  but  there  is  merit  in  making 
the  wall  on  which  we  are  sitting  advance  to- 
wards the  lion,  and  stop  the  way  of  the  lion 
and  its  rider."  Whereupon  the  wall  march- 
ed slowly  upon  the  enemy,  carrying  Hadji 
Bektash  and  his  followers  against  the  lion- 
rider,  who  saw  nothing  for  it  but  to  acknowl- 
edge the  supremacy  of  the  rival  sheikh. 

The  Bektashis  are  followers  of  the  Khalif 
Ali,  and  attribute  to  him  and  his  descendants 
all  the  extravagant  qualities  which  the  Ali- 
des  have  from  time  to  time  invented.  These 
dervishes  have  also  many  superstitious  be- 
liefs connected  with  their  girdle,  cap,  and 
cloak.  One  ceremony  with  the  stone  worn 
in  the  girdle  is  rather  striking.  The  sheikh 
puts  it  in  and  out  seven  times,  saying,  "  I  tie 
up  greediness  and  unbind  generosity.  I  tie 
up  anger  and  unbind  meekness.  I  tie  up  ig- 
norance and  unbind  the  fear  of  God.  I  tie 
up  passion  and  unbind  the  love  of  God.  I 
tie  up  the  devilish  and  unbind  the  divine." 

The  special  veneration  of  the  Khalif  Ali  by 
this  order  renders  it  particularly  hateful  to 
the  orthodox  Mussulmans  ;  and  yet.  strange 
to  say,  it  acquired  great  popularity  in  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  especially  among  the  Jan- 
issaries, who  when  first  formed  into  a  corps 
were  blessed  by  Hadji  Bektash  in  person. 
The  new  troops  are  said  to  have  been  led  by 
Sultan  Orkhan  into  the  presence  of  the  sheikh 
near  Ainassia,  when  the  Sultan  implored 
his  benediction,  and  the  gift  of  a  standard 
and  a  flag  for  his  new  force.  The  sheikh, 
stretching  out  one  of  his  arms  over  the  head 
of  a  soldier,  with  the  end  of  the  sleeve  hang- 
ing down  behind,  blessed  the  corps,  calling 
it  yeniclwri,  the  "new  troop,"  prophesying 
at  the  same  time  that  "its  figure  shall  be 
fair  and  shining,  its  arm  redoubtable,  its 
sword  cutting,  and  its  arrows  steeled.  It 
shall  be  victorious  in  all  battles,  and  only  re- 
turn triumphant."  A  pendant  representing 
the  sleeve  of  the  sheikh  was  added  to  the  felt 
cap  of  the  Janissaries  in  commemoration  of 
the  benediction  of  Hadji  Bektash.  Most  of 
the  Janissaries  were  incorporated  into  the  or- 
der of  Bektashis,  and  formed  that  formidable  • 
body  of  men,  who,  adding  the  profession  of 
the  monk  to  the  chivalrous  spirit  of  the  war- 
rior, may  be  considered  the  Knights  Tem- 
plars of  Islam. 


70 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


During  the  reign  of  Sultan  Mahmoud  II. 
the  destruction  of  the  Janissaries  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  persecution  of  the  Bektashis, 
for  whom  the  orthodox  Mohammedans  of  the 
present  day  entertain  a  sovereign  contempt. 

The  votaries  of  the  Bektashi  order  in  Euro- 
pean Turkey  are  most  numerous  among  the 
Albanians,  where  they  are  said  to  number 
over  80,000.  A  few  years  ago  they  were 
subjected  to  persecutions,  which  seem  to  have 
been  caused  by  the  little  regard  they  dis- 
played for  the  forms  of  orthodox  Islam,  from 
which  they  widely  deviate.  The  point  that 
gives  special  offence  to  the  Turk  is  the  little 
attention  paid  by  the  wives  of  these  sectarians 
to  the  Mussulman  laws  of  namekhram  (con- 
cealment), with  which  they  all  dispense  when 
the  husband  gives  them  permission  to  appear 
before  his  friends.  Polygamy  is  only  prac- 
tised among  Albanian  Bektashis  when  the 
first  wife  has  some  defect  or  infirmity. 

There  is  much  that  is  virtuous  and  liberal 
in  the  tenets  of  this  order,  but  very  little  of 
it  is  put  into  practice.  This  neglect  is  proved 
by  the  disordered  ind  unscrupulous  lives 
often  led  by  Bektasuis,  and  is  accounted  for 
by  the  existence  of  two  distinct  paths  they 
feel  equally  authorized  to  follow  :  one  lead- 
ing to  the  performance  of  all  the  duties  and 
virtues  prescribed,  and  the  other  in  which 
they  lay  these  aside  and  follow  the  bent  of 
their  own  natural  inclinations. 

Some  of  the  principal  monasteries  of  the 
Bektashis  are  to  be  found  in  Asia  Minor  in 
the  vilayet  of  Broussa.  A  Greek  gentleman 
of  my  acquaintance  had  strange  adventures 

in  one  of  their  settlements  at  M ,  where 

his  roving  disposition  had  led  him  to  pur- 
chase an  estate.  After  living  for  some  years 
among  this  half-savage  set,  he  became  a 
great  favorite,  was  received  into  their  order, 
and  finally  elected  as  their  chief,  when  he 
was  presented  with  the  emblematic  stones  of 
the  order,  which  he  wore  on  his  person. 
One  day,  however,  he  narrowly  escaped  pay- 
ing dearly  for  the  honor. 

A  herd  of  pigs  belonging  to  him  escaped 
from  the  farm,  and  took  the  road  to  ihe 
Tekfce,  into  which  they  rushed,  while  the 
congregation  were  assembled  for  their  devo- 
tions. The  excited  animals,  grunting  and 
equealing,  mingled  wildly  with  the  devotees, 
profaning  the  sacred  edifice  and  its  occu- 
pants by  their  detested  presence.  The  Bek- 
tashis sprang  to  their  feet,  and  with  one  ac- 
cord cried  out  to  the  owner  of  the  unclean 
animals  to  ask  if,  in  consequence  of  his  infi- 
del origin,  he  had  played  this  trick  upon 
them,  and  declaring  that  if  it  were  so  he 
should  pay  the  forfeit  with  his  life.  The 
Bektashi  sheikh  displayed  remarkable  pres- 
ence of  mind  at  this  critical  moment.  Rising 
to  his  feet,  he  looked  round,  assumed  an  at- 
titude and  expression  of  deep  devotion,  and 
in  an  inspired  voice  exclaimed,  "  Oh,  ye  ig- 
norant and  benighted  brethren,  see  ye  not 
that  these  swine,  enlightened  from  on  high, 
are  impelled  to  confess  the  true  faith  and 
to  joir*  us  in  our  worship  ?  Let  them  pass 
through  the  ordeal,  and  tax  not  a  creature  of 
Allah  with  the  effecting  of  an  event  for  which 
He  alone  is  responsible."  Strange  to  say, 
this  explanation  satisfied  the  devotees.  It  il- 
lustrates curiously  the  peculiar  character  of 
the  dervishes,  their  faith  in  their  sheikhs, 
and  their  belief  in  extraordinary  inspiration. 

The  ceremonies  of  Islam  are  observed  in 
Turkey  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  other 
Moslem  countries.  On  Friday  all  good,  and 
most  indifferent,  Mohammedans  go  to  the 
mosque  for  the  public  prayer  ;  but  of  course 
there  is  no  touch  of  Sabbatarianism  among 
the  Turk3  any  more  than  among  any  other 
followers  of  Mohammed.  In  most  mosques 
women  are  admitted  to  a  retired  part  of  the 
edifice  ;  but  it  is  only  elderly  ladies  who  go. 
In  some  mosques  at  Stamboul,  where  the 
women's  department  is  partitioned  off,  the  at- 
tendance is  larger,  especially  during  Rama- 
zan.  Last  year  I  went  dressed  as  a  Turkish 
lady  to  the  evening  prayer  during  the  fast. 


It  was  a  strange  sight  to  me,  and  the  excite- 
ment was  increased  by  the  knowledge  of  the 
unpleasant  consequences  that  would  follow 
the  penetration  of  my  disguise.  The  Turkish 
women  seemed  out  of  place  there  :  their  lev- 
ity contrasted  markedly  with  the  grave  bear- 
ing of  the  men  on  the  other  side  of  the  par- 
tition. The  view  I  thus  obtained  of  the 
beautiful  mosque  of  Sultan  Ahmet  was  sin- 
gularly impressive.  The  Ulema,  in  their 
green  and  white  turbans  and  graceful  robes, 
absorbed  in  the  performance  of  their  religious 
duties  ;  officers  in  bright  uniforms,  and  civi- 
lians in  red  fez  and  black  coat,  side  by  side 
with  wild-looking  dervishes  and  the  common 
people  in  the  varied  and  picturesque  costumes 
of  the  different  nations,  all  knelt  in  rows 
upon  the  soft  carpets,  or  went  through  the 
various  postures  of  that  religion  before  which 
all  men  are  equal.  Not  a  whisper  disturbed 
the  clear  melodious  voice  of  the  old  Ilodja  as 
he  pronounced  the  Terravi  prayers,  which 
the  congregation  took  up  in  chorus,  now 
prostrating  "their  faces  on  the  ground,  now 
slowly  rising  :  you  could  fancy  it  a  green 
corn-field,  studded  with  poppies,  billowing 
under  the  breeze.  Above  were  the  number- 
less lamps  that  shone  in  the  stately  dome. 

You  can  give  no  higher  praise  to  a  Turk 
than  saying  that  he  performs  his  five  prayers 
a-day.  In  right  of  this  qualification  young 
men  of  no  position  and  as  little  merit  are 
often  chosen  as  sons-in-law  by  pious  people. 
A  Turk  of  the  old  school  is  proud  of  his  re- 
ligion, and  is  never  ashamed  of  letting  you 
see  it.  So  long  as  he  can  turn  his  face  to- 
wards Mekka,  lie  will  say  his  prayers  any- 
where. The  Turks  like  to  say  their  namaz  in 
public,  that  they  may  have  praise  of  men-; 
and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  a  good  deal  of  hy- 
pocrisy goes  on  in  this  matter.  This,  how- 
ever, is  on  the  decrease,  because  fewer  Turks 
in  all  classes  say  their  prayers  or  observe  the 
outward  forms  of  religion  than  formerly. 
This  is  no  doubt  partly  due  to  the  influence 
of  "  Young  Turkey,"  though  other  causes 
are  also  at  work. 

But  the  orthodox  Turk  must  do  more  than 
observe  the  prayers.  The  fast  of  Ramazan  is 
a  very  important  part  of  his  religious  rou- 
tine. Every  one  knows  this  terrible  month 
of  day-fasting  and  night-feasting.  It  tells 
most  severely  on  the  poor,  who  keep  it 
strictly,  and  are  compelled  to  work  during 
the  day  exactly  as  when  not  fasting.  Wo- 
men also  of  all  classes  observe  the  fast  relig- 
iously. But  there  are  very  few  among  the 
higher  officials,  or  the  gentlemen  who  have 
enrolled  themselves  under  the  banner  of  La 
Jeune  Turquie,  who  take  any  notice  of  it, 
except  in  public,  where  they  are  obliged  to 
show  outward  respect  to  the  prejudices  of 
the  people. 

This  fast-month  is  a  sort  of  revival-time  to 
the  Moslems.  They  are  supposed  to  devote 
more  time  to  the  careful  study  of  the  Koran 
and  to  the  minute  practice  of  its  ordinances. 
Charity,  peacefulness,  hospitality,  almsgiv- 
ing, are  among  the  virtues  which  they  spe- 
cially cultivate  at  this  time  ;  and  though  the 
theory  is  not  put  in  practice  to  the  letter,  and 
hospitality  not  carried  out  as  originally  in- 
tended— the  rich  man  standing  at  his  door  at 
sunset,  bringing  in  and  setting  at  his  table  all 
the  poor  that  happened  to  pass  by,  and  send- 
ing them  away  with  presents  of  money — it  is 
still  very  largely  practised. 

I  have  often  partaken  of  an  Iftar,  or  Ram- 
azan dinner.  It  is  very  curious  to  observe 
the  physiognomy  of  the  Terriakis,  or  great 
smokers  and  coffee-drinkers,  who,  as  the  mo- 
ment of  indulgence  approaches,  become  rest- 
less and  cross,  now  sighing  for  the  firing  of 
the  gun  that  proclaims  the  fast  at  an  end, 
now  indulging  in  bad  language  to  the  people 
who  gather  round  and  tease  them.  As  the 
sun  approaches  the  horizon,  a  tray  is  brought 
in  laden  with  all  sorts  of  sweets,  salads,  salt 
fish,  Ramazan  cakes,  fruit  and  olives,  con- 
tained in  the  tiniest  coffee-saucers,  together 
with   goblets   of    delicious    iced    sherbet. 


When  the  gun  is  fired  every  one  utters  a 
Bismillah  and  takes  an  olive,  that  fruit  being 
considered  five  times  more  blessed  than  water 
to  break  the  fast  with.  After  the  content? 
of  the  tray  have  been  sparingly  partaken  of, 
dinner  is  announced,  and  all  gather  round 
the  gqfra  ;  few,  however,  eat  with  appetite, 
or  relish  the  dinner  half  so  much  as  they  do 
the  cup  of  coffee  and  cigarettes  "that  follow. 

During  Ramazan  night  is  turned  into  day, 
and  the  streets  then  remind  one  of  carnival 
time  in  Catholic  countries.  The  wealthy  sit 
up  all  night,  receiving  and  returning  calls, 
giving  evening  parties,  spending  the  time  in 
a  round  of  feasts  and  entertainments.  At 
Stamboul,  when  the  prayer  of  the  Terravi — 
which  is  recited  two  hours  after  sunset — 
is  over  in  the  mosque,  all  the  people  betake 
themselves  to  the  esplanade  of  the  Sulima- 
nieh,  and  hundreds  of  elegant  carriages  con- 
taining Turkish  beauties  may  be  seen  cutting 
their  way  through  the  dense  crowd  of  prom- 
enaders.  The  bazars  are  illuminated,  and  all 
the  fruit  and  refreshment  shops  are  open. 
Eating,  drinking  sherbet,  and  smoking,  is 
the  order  of  the  evening,  besides  a  great 
amount  of  flirtation.  I  cannot  say  that  there 
is  much  taste  or  refinement  in  this  unusual 
but  tacitly  recognized  passing  intercourse. 
The  ladies  all  appear  in  high  spirit3,  and  tol- 
erate, and  even  seem  amused  by,  the  acts  of 
gross  impertinence  to  which  they  arc  sub- 
jected by  male  passers-by.  Some  of  the  fast 
men  and  mauvais  tujets  indulge  in  acts  and 
language  that  would  certainly  obtain  the  in- 
terference of  the  police  in  an  orderly  society. 

I  accompanied  some  friends,  the  family  of 
one  of  the  ministers,  to  this  evening  enter- 
tainment. We  had  six  servants  round  the 
carriage,  but  they  were  no  protection  against 
the  heaps  of  rubbish  in  the  shape  of  lighted 
cigarette  ends,  parched  peas,  capsicums,  and 
fruit  of  all  kinds  thrown  into  it,  not  to  speak 
of  the  licentious  little  speeches  addressed  to 
us  by  passing  beaux.  My  friends  advised  me 
to  be  on  my  guard,  as  action  is  often  added 
to  word,  and  the  arms  and  hands  of  the  oc- 
cupants of  the  vehicles  made  to  smart  from 
the  liberties  taken  with  them.  Thus  fore 
warned,  I  took  care  to  shut  the  window  on 
my  side  of  the  carriage  ;  a  little  scream  from 
my  companions  every  now  and  then,  when 
we  found  ourselves  in  the  densest  part  of  the 
crowd,  followed  by  a  shower  of  abuse  from 
the  ncgress  sitting  opposite  us,  showed  that 
my  precaution  had  not  been  needless.  The 
little  respect  paid  to  women  in  this  indiscri- 
minate m&ie,  where  the  dignity  of  the  Sul- 
tana was  no  more  regarded  than  the  modesty 
of  the  lowly  pedestrian,  struck  me  forcibly. 
It  made  the  greater  impression  upon  me  as  it 
contrasted  strongly  with  the  respect  paid  to 
her  under  other  circumstances.  In  steam- 
boats, for  example,  an  unattended  Turkish 
woman  is  seldom  known  to  be  insulted,  even 
when  her  conduct  gives  provocation. 

Three  hours  before  dawn,  drums  are  beaten 
and  verses  sung  through  the  streets  to  warn 
the  people  to  prepare  for  the  sah>r,  or  sup- 
per, after  which  an  hour's  leisure  is  accorded 
tor  smoking  and  coffee-drinking,  when  the 
firing  of  a  gun  announces  the  moment  for  rins- 
ing the  mouth  and  sealing  it  against  food  till 
suuset.  All  business  is  put  off  by  tiie  wealthy 
during  the  day,  which  is  filled  up  by  sleep  ; 
while  the  poor  go  through  the  day's  work 
unrefreshed. 

Pilgrimages,  though  less  practised  now 
than  formerly  in  Turkey,  arc  still  considered 
the  holiest  actions  of  a  Mohammedan's  life. 
The  most  perfect  is  the  one  embracing  tho 
visit  to  the  four  sacred  spots  of  Islam — 
Damascus,  Jerusalem,  Mekka,  and  Medina  ; 
but  the  long  journey  that  this  would  entail, 
the  dangers  and  difficulties  that  surround  it, 
are  checks  upon  all  but  the  most  zealous  of 
pilgrims,  and  only  a  few  hardy  and  enter- 
prising individuals  perform  the  duty  in  full. 
The  pilgrims,  collected  from  all  parts  of  the 
country,  leave  Constantinople  in  a  body  fif- 
teen days  before  the  fast  of  Ramazan.     Tha 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


:: 


Government  facilitates  this  departure  by  giv- 
ing free  passages  and  other  grants.  Those 
pilgrims  that  go  via  Damascus  are  the 
bearers  of  the  Imperial  presents  to  the  holy 
shrines.  Every  Hadji  on  returning  from 
Mekka  bears  a  token  of  his  pilgrimage  in  a 
tattoo  mark  on  his  arm  and  between  his 
thumb  and  forefinger. 

I  cannot  close  a  chapter  on  Islam  in  Tur- 
key without  referring  to  a  belief  which, 
though  but  vaguely  introduced  into  the  orig- 
inal faith  of  Mohammed,  has  come  to  mean 
everything  to  the  Turk.  I  mean  Kismet.  It 
is  not,  of  course,  the  belief  in  an  inevitable 
destiny  that  is  remarkable  :  all  nations  have 
their  share  in  that,  and  modern  Christianity 
has  sometimes  carefully  formulated  the  doc- 
trine of  the  fatalist.  It  is  rather  the  intensity 
of  the  Turk's  belief,  and  his  dogged  in- 
sistence on  its  logical  results,  that  make  it  so 
extraordinary.  Many  people  besides  Turks 
believe  in  destiny,  but  their  belief  does  not 
prevent  them  from  consulting  their  doctor  or 
avoiding  infection.  With  the  Turk  all  such 
precautions  are  vain  :  if  it  is  kismet  that 
a  thing  shall  happen,  happen  it  will,  and 
what  then  is  the  good  of  trying  to  avert  it  ? 
Everything  in  Turkey  is  controlled  by  kis- 
met. If  a  man  suffers  some  trifling  loss,  it 
is  kismet ;  if  he  die,  it  is  also  kismet.  He 
marries  by  kismet,  and  shortly  divorces  his 
wife  by  the  same  influence.  He  succeeds  in 
life,  or  he  fails  :  it  is  kismet.  Sultans  suc- 
ceed one  another — again  kismet.  Armies  go 
forth  to  conquer  or  to  be  conquered — Fate 
rules  the  event.  It  is  useless  to  fight  against 
the  decrees  of  kismet.  That  Fate  helps  him 
who  helps  himself  is  a  doctrine  incompre- 
hensible to  the  Turk.  He  lies  passive  in  the 
hand  of  destiny  :  it  would  be  impious  to 
rebel. 

The  effects  of  this  doctrine  lie  on  the  sur- 
face. .Not  only  are  lives  constantly  sacri- 
ficed, and  wealth  and  happiness  lost  by  this 
fatal  principle  of  passivity,  but  the  whole 
character  of  the  nation  is  enfeebled.  The 
Turk  has  no  rightful  ambition  :  if  it  is  kis- 
met he  should  succeed,  well  and  good  ;  but 
if  not,  no  efforts  of  his  own  can  avail  him. 
Hence  he  smokes  his  chibouk  and  makes  no 
efforts  at  all.  Something  might  be  done  with 
him  if  he  would  only  show  some  energy  of 
character  ;  but  this  doctrine  has  sapped  that 
energy  at  the  root,  and  there  is  no  vitality 
left. 

This  is  the  main  disastrous  result  of  fatal- 
ism :  it  has  destroyed  the  vigor  of  a  once 
powerful  nation.  But  every  day  brings  forth 
instances  of  lesser  evils  flowing  from  the  same 
source.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out 
in  how  many  ways  a  fatalist  injures  himself 
and  all  belonging  to  him.  One  or  two  com- 
mon cases  will  be  enough.  I  have  already 
referred  to  the  neglect  of  all  sanitary  precau- 
tions as  one  of  the  results  of  the  belief  in  kis- 
met. This  neglect  is  shown  in  a  thousand 
ways  ;  but  one  or  two  instances  that  I  re- 
member may  point  the  moral.  Turkey  is 
especially  liable  to  epidemics,  and  of  course 
the  havoc  they  create  is  terrible  among  a  pas- 
sive population.  In  all  district  towns  the 
Turks  manifest  the  greatest  possible  dislike 
and  opposition  to  every  species  of  quaran- 
tine :  they  regard  quarantine  regulations  as 
profane  interference  with  the  decrees  of  God, 
and  systematically  disregard  them.  The  doc- 
tor of  the  first  quarantine  establishment  at 
Broussa  was  assaulted  in  the  street  by  sev- 
eral hundred  Turkish  women,  who  beat  him 
nearly  to  death,  from  which  he  was  only 
saved  by  fas  police.  Small-pox  is  among  the 
most  fatal  of  the  scourges  that  invade  the 
people,  and  Turkish  children  are  frequently 
victims  to  it ;  yet  it  is  with  the  utmost  diffi- 
culty that  a  Turk  can  be  induced  to  vacci- 
nate his  child,  though,  happily,  the  precau- 
tion is  now  more  practised  than  it  used  to  be. 
Separation  in  sickness  is  another  of  the 
:  measures  Turks  can  never  be  made  to  take. 
A  short  time  ago  a  girl  of  fourteen,  the 
daughter  of  our  kavass,  was  seized  with  au 


attack  of  quinsy.  As  soon  as  I  heard  of  it  I 
begged  our  doctor  to  accompany  me  to  the 
Mohammedan  quarter  and  visit  the  invalid. 
We  found  her  lying  on  a  clean  shelle,  or  mat- 
tress, on  the  floor,  which  was  equally  occu 
pied  by  her  young  brothers  and  sisters,  who 
were  playing  round  and  trying  to  amuse  her. 
The  doctor's  first  care  was  to  send  away  the 
children,  and  recommend  that  they  should  on  | 
no  account  be  allowed  to  come  near  her,  as  her 
throat  was  in  a  most  terrible  condition.  Both 
parents  declared  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  keep  them  away  ;  besides,  if  it  was  their 
kismet  to  be  also  visited  by  the  disease,  noth- 
ing could  avert  it.  The  room  occupied  by 
the  sick  girl  was  clean  and  tidy  ;  the  doors 
and  windows,  facing  the  sea,  fronted  by  a 
veranda,  were  open,  and  the  house  being 
situated  in  the  highest  part  of  the  town,  un- 
der the  rains  of  the  old  walls,  the  sharp  April 
air  was  allowed  free  access  to  the  chamber 
most  injuriously  to  the  invalid.  On  the  at- 
tention of  the  parents  being  drawn  to  the 
fact,  they  simply  answered  that  the  feverish 
state  of  the  child  needed  the  cool  air  to  such 
an  extent  that  twice  during  the  preceding 
night  she  had  left  her  room  and  gone  down  to 
the  yard  to  repose  upon  the  cold  stone  slabs 
in  order  to  cool  herself  ! 

In  spite  of  every  effort  to  save  her,  she 
died  on  the  third  night  from  exhaustion 
caused  by  her  refusal  to  take  the  medicines 
and  nourishment  provided  for  her,  and  to  be 
kept  in  her  chamber,  which  she  had  aban- 
doned, taking  up  her  quarters  on  the  balcony, 
where  we  saw  her  on  the  last  day.  On  visit- 
ing the  family  after  the  sad  event,  we  found 
the  unhappy  parents  distracted  with  sorrow, 
but  still  accepting  it  with  fatalistic  resigna- 
ton,  saying  that  "  her  edjel  had  come  to  call 
her  away  from  among  the  living. " 

Our  attention  was  next  attracted  by  three 
of  the  children.  The  youngest,  a  baby,  ap- 
peared choking  from  the  effects  of  the  same 
complaint,  and  died  the  same  night.  The 
other  two,  a  boy  and  girl,  also  attacked,  were 
playing  about,  although  in  high  fever  and 
with  dreadfully  swollen  throats.  The  doc- 
tor begged  that  they  should  be  sent  to  bed, 
to  which  they  both  refused  to  submit,  while 
the  parents  phlegmatically  said  that  it  would 
be  a  useless  measure,  as  they  could  not  be 
kept  there,  and  that  if  it  should  be  their  kis- 
met to  recover  they  would  do  so.  I  am  glad 
to  say  they  did  recover,  though  I  am  afraid 
their  recovery  did  not  convert  the  doctor  and 
me  to  a  belief  in  kismet. 

Owing  to  this  fatal  and  general  way  of 
treating  sickness,  the  prescriptions  of  physi- 
cians, neither  believed  in  nor  carried  out, 
are  useless  ;  besides,  they  are  always  inter- 
fered with  and  disputed  by  quacks  and  old 
women,  and  the  muskas,  prayers,  and  blow- 
ings of  saintly  Hodjas. 

When  the  patient  survives  this  extraordi- 
nary combination  of  nursing,  it  is  simply 
stated  that  his  edjel  or  death-summons  has. 
not  yet  arrived. 

If  a  man  die  away  from  his  home  and 
country,  his  kismet  is  supposed  to  have  sum- 
moned him  to  die  on  the  spot  that  received 
his  body. 

Kismet  thus  being  the  main  fountain 
whence  the  Mohammedan  draws  with  equa- 
nimity both  the  good  and  the  evil  it  may 
please  Providence  to  pour  forth  upon  him, 
he  receives  both  with  the  stoicism  of  the 
born-and-bred  fatalist,  who  looks  upon  every 
effort  of  his  own  to  change  the  decrees  of 
destiny  as  vain  and  futile.  Hence  he  be- 
comes Moslem,  or  "resigned,"  in  the  most 
literal  sense.  His  character  gains  that  qual- 
ity of  inertness  which  we  associate  with  the 
Oriental,  and  his  nation  becomes,  what  a  na- 
tion cannot  become  and  live — stagnant. 

CHAPTER  xxrr. 

CHRISTIANITY    IN   TURKEY. 

The  Greek  or  Holy  Orthodox  Charch— Its  Character 
under  Ottoman  Rale — Its  Service  to  the  Greek  Nation 
— bupci&uuuiid  Doctrines  and  Rites— Improvement — 


Revenues— Bishops— Patriarchs— The  nighcr  Clergy- 
Schools— Parish  Priests— Fatal  Influence  of  Conner 
tion  with  the  State — Monasteries— Mount  Athos — The 
Five  Categories  of  Monks — Government  of  the  "  Uoly 
Mountain"' — Pilgrims— The  Bulgarian  Church— Popu- 
lar Interest  in  tiie  Church  Question — Sketch  of  the 
History  of  the  Schism — The  Armenian  Church — St. 
Gregory— Creed— Church  Polity— Influence  of  Russia 
— Contest  between  the  Czar  and  the  Catholicos— 
Ritual— Clergy. 

It  has  long  been  the  custom  to  fling  a  good 
deal  of  contumely  on  the  Holy  Orthodox  or 
Greek  Church.  Judging  from  the  descrip- 
tions of  trustworthy  writers,  from  conversa- 
tions I  have  often  held  with  persons  of 
authority  on  the  subject,  and  from  personal 
observation,  I  feel  convinced  that  if  part  of 
the  abuse  heaped  upon  the  Greek  Church  is 
well  founded,  the  greater  portion  is  due  to 
the  rivalry  and  hatred  of  the  Western  Church, 
and  to  the  antipathy  felt  by  the  Reformed 
Church  towards  her  superstitions  and  formal- 
ities ;  but  a  still  stronger  reason  may  be 
found  in  the  errors  the  church  still  harbors, 
and  in  the  ignorance  in  which  her  clergy  re- 
mained so  long  plunged.  Taking  this  as  a 
general  rule,  and  lamenting  its  consequences, 
we  should  on  the  other  hand  bear  in  mind 
the  great  antiquity  of  the  church  and  its 
early  services  to  Christianity.  Some  of  its 
rites  and  ceremonies  are  certainly  supersti- 
tious and  superfluous,  but  there  is  none  of 
the  intolerance  of  the  Romish  Church,  nor 
are  religious  persecutions  to  be  laid  to  its 
charge.  Its  clergy,  stigmatized  as  venal  and 
ignorant  tools  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
have  nevertheless  had  their  virtues  and  re- 
deeming points  counterbalancing  their  evil 
repute."  The  rivalry  of  the  upper  clergy 
originated  principally  in  the  corrupt  system 
of  bribery  pursued  by  them  in  their  relations 
with  the  Porte  f or  the  grant  of  perats  or  di- 
plomas installing  the  Patriarchs  in  their  re- 
spective seats,  and  the  practice  indulged  in 
by  the  Patriarchs  of  selling  bishoprics  at  a 
price  in  proportion  to  the  wealth  of  the  dio- 
cese. Yet  in  the  midst  of  this  darkness  there 
were  still  found  men  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
culture  and  uphold  the  dignity  of  the  church. 
Nor  have  the  Greek  clergy  always  been  the 
cringing  servants  of  the  Porte,  or  the  go- 
betweens  of  the  Turks  and  the  rayahs  ;  in 
the  list  of  the  Patriarchs  we  find  many  who, 
in  the  midst  of  difficulties  inevitable  in  serv- 
ing a  government  foreign  to  their  church  and 
hostile  to  the  hopes  and  aspirations  of  their 
people,  hesitated  not  in  moments  of  supreme 
need  to  sacrifice  position,  fortune,  and  even 
life,  under  most  horrible  circumstances,  for 
the  sake  of  the  church.  With  memories  of 
such  martyrdoms  ever  present  in  the  minds 
of  a  dependent  clergy,  it  is  not  surprising  to 
find  this  section  of  the  Greek  nation  ap- 
parently so  subservient  to  their  rulers.  The 
past,  however,  with  all  its  blots,  is  rapidly 
passing  away  ;  the  rules  now  followed  by 
the  Patriarchate  in  fixed  salaries  and  written 
regulations  with  regard  to  certain  contribu- 
tions have  put  an  end  to  many  former 
abuses.  The  theological  schools,  rapidly  in- 
creasing in  number  and  importance  in  Tur- 
key as  well  as  in  Greece,  have  also  a  benefi- 
cial effect  on  the  training  of  the  clergy,  who 
daily  attaining  a  higher  standard  in  morality, 
mental  development,  and  social  position,  have 
of  late  years  been  enabled  not  only  to  main- 
tain a  more  determined  and  independent 
attitude  before  the  civil  authorities,  but 
also  largely  to  increase  their  influence  in 
promoting  the  education  of  their  flocks.  The 
old  class  of  clergy  is  dying  out,  and  grad- 
ually a  new  and  different  set  of  men  is  com 
ing  forward. 

The  commonest  charge  that  is  brought 
against  the  Greek  Church  is  its  accumulation 
of  superstitions.  But  the  people  are  begin- 
ning to  drop  the  more  absurd  ceremonies 
and  treat  the  more  preposterous  superstitions 
with  indifference.  It  is  true  that  the  church 
itself  is  not  yet  taking  the  lead  in  this  mat- 
ter, as  how  should  it  ?  I  have  often  talked 
on  this  subject  with  ecclesiastics  of  the  East- 
ern faith,  and  they  admit  both  the  absurdity 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


of  many  of  the  rites  practised  and  the  beliefs 
inculcated,  and  also  the  tendency  of  the 
people  to  neglect  these  rites  and  to  disbelieve 
these  superstitions  ;  but  they  say  that  any 
action  on  the  part  of  the  church  would  lead 
to  the  serious  injury  both  of  itself  and  the 
Greek  nation  ;  for  a  general  synod  would 
have  to  be  held  to  deliberate  on  the  necessary 
reforms  ;  schisms  would  at  once  arise,  and 
the  Greek  Church,  and  hence  the  Greek  na- 
tion, would  be  disintegrated.  However,  I 
believe  there  are  too  many  sensible  men 
among  the  Greek  clergy  for  this  weak  posi- 
tion to  be  maintained  long.  The  church 
must  reform  if  it  is  to  remain  the  church  of 
the  Greeks. 

At  present,  however,  the  priests  are  afraid 
to  move.  They  dare  not  admit  the  falsity  of 
parts  of  their  doctrine  and  the  absurdity  of 
their  practices,  for  fear  of  wider  conse- 
quences. For  example,  a  miraculous  Are 
is  supposed  to  spring  from  the  supposed 
tomb  of  Christ  on  Easter  Sunday.  The 
Greek  clergy  do  not  actually  assert  it  to  be  a 
miracle — at  least  not  to  Westerns — but  if 
questioned  about  it  they  invariably  give  an 
evasive  answer  ;  and  the  priest  still  continues 
solemnly  to  light  his  taper  from  the  tomb  and 
present  it  to  the  congregation  saying,  "Take, 
then,  the  flame  from  the  Eternal  Light, 
and  praise  Christ  who  is  risen  from  the 
dead. "  *  A  similar  ceremony  is  observed  on 
a  small  scale  in  every  Greek  church  at  Easter, 
when  the  congregation  light  their  tapers  from 
the  altar  and  the  same  formula  is  used. 

It  is  needless  to  say  anything  here  about 
the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  Church  :  every 
one  knows  the  insignificant  diff  erences  which 
separate  it  from  the  Church  of  Rome.  The 
rites  are  less  generally  known  ;  but  unfortu- 
nately they  are  too  numerous  and  various  to 
be  described  here.  The  general  impression 
produced  by  a  Greek  service  is  gorgeousness. 
The  rites  are  essentially  Oriental,  and  have 
been  little  changed  since  the  early  days  of 
the  Eastern  Empire.  The  ceremonies  are 
endless  :  fast  and  feast  days,  with  their  dis- 
tinctive rites,  are  always  occurring,  and 
though  generally  disregarded  by  the  upper 
classes  are  scrupulously  observed  by  the 
peasantry,  to  whom  the  fasts  (on  which  they 
work  as  usual)  cause  actual  physical  injury, 
and  the  feasts  sometimes  produce  almost 
equally  disastrous  effects.  Some  parts  of  the 
service  are  very  beautiful  and  impressive  ; 
but  the  prayers  are  generally  intoned  in  a 
hurried  and  irreverent  manner,  which  renders 
them  hard  to  be  understood.  These  things, 
however,  are  mending  :  the  lower  clergy  pay 
more  attention  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  deco- 
rum in  the  conduct  of  the  services,  and  bish- 
ops are  now  not  consecrated  unless  they  are 
somewhat  educated.  Formerly  the  lives  of 
the  saints  were  the  topics  of  sermons,  now 
they  are  becoming  more  practical  and  ex- 
hortatory  ;  but  political  subjects  are  strictly 
excluded. 

Since  the  conquest  the  Greek  Church  and 
its  clergy  in  the  Ottoman  Empire  have  never 
been  supported  by  the  Government,  nor  have 
its  ministers  ever  received  any  grant  either 
for  themselves  or  the  churches  and  schools 
under  their  care.  An  imperial  order  con- 
firms the  nomination  of  patriarchs,  metropol- 
itans, archbishops,  and  bishops.  The  last 
received  from  each  family  in  their  diocese  a 
portion  of  the  produce  of  its  fields  :  from  a 
peasant,  for  example,  from  half  a  kilo  of  corn 
and  hay  to  a  whole  kilo,  according  to  his 
means.  This  was  considered  a  loyal  dona- 
tion from  each  household  to  its  spiritual 
guide.  Besides  this  the  archbishops  enjoyed 
special  benefits  from  the  celebration  of  mar- 
riages, funerals,  and  other  religious  ceremo- 
nies to  which  they  were  invited.  But  un- 
fortunately these  emoluments  eventually  be- 
•came  subject  to  some  abuses,  which  excited 
murmurs   from    the  community.      Another 


*  AevTE  Au/3tTt  0ur  tx  tov  aveonepov  (purbc  nca 
io^iaarc  Xpiardv  toi>  avaaTuvra  in  vcKpuv. 


custom  was  that  a  bishop  should  receive 
from  his  diocese,  at  his  consecration,  a  sum 
sufficient  to  defray  his  immediate  expenses 
during  the  first  year.  This  sum,  as  well  as 
the  offerings  in  kind,  was  fixed  by  the  elders 
of  the  town  in  which  the  metropolitan  re- 
sided ;  the  local  authorities  never  interfered 
in  these  arrangements,  except  when  the 
bishops  demanded  their  assistance  for  the  re- 
covery of  their  dues.  These  usages  continued 
in  force  until  1860  ;  Feizi  Pasha  and  his  two 
supporters,  Ali  Pasha  and  Fouad  Pasha,  had 
previously  tried  every  means  to  induce  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  his  Synod, 
together  with  the  higher  classes  of  the  Greek 
nation,  to  accept  the  funds  of  their  church 
from  the  Ottoman  Government.  The  Porte, 
in  order  to  obtain  the  end  it  had  in  view, 
showed  itself  liberal  by  promising  large  fees 
to  the  higher  clergy.  But  for  religious,  po- 
litical, and  social  reasons,  the  patriarch  and 
the  nation  in  general  rejected  the  proposal. 
After  the  Crimean  War  a  Constitutional 
Assembly,  composed  of  bishops  and  lay  dep- 
uties from  all  the  provinces,  was  convened 
by  order  of  the  Porte,  to  deliberate  upon  the 
settlement  of  some  administiative  affairs 
connected  with  the  oecumenical  throne  of 
Constantinople,  the  cathedrals,  and  the 
bishops.  This  assembly  also  regulated, 
among  other  things,  the  revenues  of  the 
patriarch  and  all  the  archbishops.  Each 
province,  proportionately  to  its  extent,  its 
political  importance,  andits  Christian  popu- 
lation, was  ordered  to  pay  a  fixed  sum.  The 
annual  minimum  is  30,000  piastres,  and  the 
maximum  90,000  piastres.  The  patriarch 
receives  thirty  per  cent  on  this.  The  fees 
fixed  by  the  elders  of  each  province  are  paid 
annually  by  each  family  :  the  maximum  of 
this  contribution  does  not  exceed  twenty 
piastres  each,  which,  in  the  aggregate,  con- 
stitutes the  revenues  of  the  bishops  and  the 
pay  of  their  subordinates.  The  extra  reve- 
nues are  regulated  in  the  same  manner,  the 
ancient  customs  concerning  their  receipt  hav- 
ing been  abolished.  The  fees  and  extra 
emoluments  of  the  lower  clergy  of  cities, 
towns,  and  villages  are  received  after  the 
same  fashion.  An  annual  sum  is  paid  by 
each  family  to  the  priest,  which  in  many 
villages  rarely  exceeds  three  or  four  piastres. 
The  archbishops  also  receive  their  stipend 
from  their  diocese,  and  are  very  seldom 
obliged  to  request  the  assistance  of  the 
authorities,  who  show  great  repugnance  to 
interfering  in  the  matter. 

The  social  influence  of  a  bishop  proceeds 
from  many  circumstances.  He  is  considered 
the  spiritual  guide  of  all  Orthodox  Chris- 
tians, presiding  over  the  vestry  and  corpora- 
tion intrusted  with  public  affairs — such  as 
schools,  philanthropical  establishments,  and 
churches.  He  hears  and  judges,  conjointly 
with  a  council  composed  of  laymen,  all  the 
dissensions  which  arise  between  the  mem- 
bers of  the  community.  To  a  certain  extent, 
and  when  there  is  no  intervention  of  the  local 
courts,  he  judges  in  cases  of  divorce,  and  in 
disputes  relative  to  the  payment  of  dowries, 
as  well  as  in  cases  of  inheritance  ;  bat  the 
local  courts  have  the  right  of  interfering.  In 
these  cases  the  canonical  laws  are  more  or 
less  well  interpreted  according  to  the  pleasure 
of  the  Kadi.  The  bishop  judges  all  that  re- 
lates to  the  aforesaid  cases  in  right  of  a  priv- 
ilege granted  to  him  by  the  patriarch.  He 
can  also  decide  other  matters  which  belong 
to  the  local  courts  in  a  friendly  way  when 
the  disputants  agree  to  it ;  but  when  one  of 
them  appears  dissatisfied  he  may  refer  it  to 
the  local  court,  and  the  sentence  of  the  bishop 
is  nullified  by  that  of  this  tribunal. 

The  bishop  enjoys  the  political  position  of 
'EOvdpxri  and  permanent  member  of  the  Gov- 
ernment Council  of  the  province.  In  addi- 
tion to  his  spiritual  duties,  in  the  fulfilment 
of  which  he  has  sometimes  to  call  in  the  as- 
sistance of  the  local  authorities,  the  bishop 
acts  as  intermediary  between  the  Christiana 
and  the  civil  government  when  they  ask  for 


his  intervention  and  counsel.  But  this  is 
not  always  successful,  as  the  bishop  is  in- 
vested with  no  regular  power,  and  the  local 
authorities,  as  well  as  the  central  administra- 
tion, make  use  of  it  as  they  choose  and  when 
convenient  to  them,  always  acting  for  the  di- 
rect interest  of  their  government. 

In  the  Council  the  influence  of  the  bishop 
is  nil;  for  his  vote,  as  well  as  those  of  all  the 
other  Christian  members,  is  lost  in  the  ma- 
jority gained  by  the  Mussulmans,  to  which 
is  added  the  arbitrary  influence  of  the  Pasha 
and  the  President.  Very  small  benefit  is  de- 
rived from  the  presence  of  these  Christian 
representatives  at  the  councils.  Liberty  of 
speech,  reasonable  discussion,  and  all  that 
might  •contribute  to  the  proper  direction  of 
affairs,  are  entirely  unknown. 

The  Greek  Church  is  governed  by  four 
patriarchs  residing  at  Constantinople,  Jeru- 
salem, Antioch,  and  Alexandria ;  the  last 
three  are  equal  and  independent,  but  the 
authority  of  the  first  is  supreme  in  the  reg- 
ulation of  spiritual  affairs,  and  in  his  hands 
rests  the  power  of  appointing,  dismissing,  or 
punishing  any  of  the  prelates.  He  is  elected 
by  a  majority  of  votes  of  a  synod  of  the  met- 
ropolitan and  neighboring  bishops,  and  is  pre- 
sented to  the  Sultan  for  institution,  a  favor 
seldom  obtained  without  the  payment  of 
several  thousand  pounds — a  long-standing 
instance  of  the  habitual  simony  of  the 
Church.  The  Sultan,  however,  retains  the 
unmitigated  power  of  deposing,  banishing, 
or  executing  him.  These  penalties  were  fre- 
quently inflicted  in  former  times,  but  the 
ecclesiastical  body  within  the  last  half  cen- 
tury has  gained  much  in  influence  and  sub- 
stance. 

In  spite  of  the  general  ignorance  and  cor- 
ruption of  the  higher  clergy  since  the  occu- 
pation of  the  country  by  the  Ottomans,  their 
ranks  have  never  lacked  men  who  were  as 
famous  for  their  knowledge  as  for  their  virtue 
and  piety.  There  were  many  who  shunned 
ecclesiastical  dignity  in  order  to  pass  their 
lives  in  instructing  the  rising  generation  of 
their  time. 

No  religious  schools  then  existed  :  the  ec- 
clesiastics received  their  elementary  educa- 
tion in  the  Ottoman  establishments,  and  were 
subsequently  sent  to  the  colleges  of  Germany 
or  Italy  to  complete  their  studies.  It  was 
only  about  the  year  1843  that  the  first  school 
for  the  teaching  of  theology  was  founded  in 
the  island  of  Chalcis,  so  that  most  of  the 
present  archbishops  in  the  Empire  studied 
there  ;  but  many  priests  still  go  to  Athens  to 
complete  their  education.  Schools  were  also 
established  for  the  lower  clergy,  but  the 
teaching  in  them  was  so  deficient  that  most 
of  the  priests  were  sent  to  study  only  in  the 
national  schools,  where  they  learn  next  to 
nothing. 

The  higher  ranks  of  the  clergy  are  entirely 
recruited  from  the  monastic  order  :  hence 
the3-  are  alwa}rs  unmarried,  and  hence  the 
too  often  vicious  character  of  their  lives.  An 
attempt,  partly  successful,  was  made  to  put 
some  check  upon  their  conduct  by  the  law 
that  no  bishop  or  archbishop  can  hold  more 
than  three  sees  during  his  lifetime.  If, 
therefore,  he  scandalizes  the  population  of 
two  dioceses,  he  is  at  least  bound  to  be  pru- 
dent in  the  third. 

No  distinction  exists  between  the  priests  of 
the  cities  and  those  of  the  country  villages. 
All  are  equal  ;  nominated  and  elected  in  the 
same  manner  ;  remunerated  for  their  ser- 
vices after  the  mode  already  explained. 
Nearly  all  of  them  are  married  ;  but  thoee 
who  are  not  stand  on  the  same  footing  as 
those  who  are.  Historically,  these  parish 
priests  have  done  some  service  to  the  Greek 
nation  :  they  helped  to  remind  it  of  its  na- 
tional existence,  and  by  their  simple,  hard- 
working lives  taught  their  flocks  that  the 
Greeks  had  still  a  church  that  was  not  wholly 
given  over  to  cringing  to  the  Turks,  that 
had  not  altogether  bowed  the  knee  to  Baal. 
But  that  is  all  that  can  be  said  for  them.    It 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


73 


is  impossible  to  conceive  a  clergy  more  igno- 
rant than  these  parish  priests  ;  they  are  not 
only  absolutely  without  training  in  their  own 
profession,  knowing  nought  of  theology,  but 
they  have  not  a  common  elementary  educa- 
tion. If,  on  the  one  hand,  this  ignorance 
puts  them  more  on  a  sympathetic  level  with 
their  parishioners,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  it  renders  them  incapable  of  raising 
their  flocks  one  jot  above  the  stage  of  rustic 
barbarism  in  which  they  found  them.  There 
is  no  ambition  (unlike  the  rest  of  the  Greek 
race)  in  these  homely  priests  ;  for  they  can- 
not attain  any  high  position  in  the  Church. 
Their  association  seldom  benefits  the  people 
with  much  religious  instruction,  for  their 
studies  are  restricted  to  the  external  formal- 
ities of  their  services.  Many  of  the  abuses 
attributed  to  them  for  exactions  are  exag- 
gerated :  their  condition  of  poverty  and  mod- 
est way  of  living,  in  no  wa3'  superior  to  the 
common  people,  is  the  best  proof  of  this  fact. 
They  are  accused  of  bargaining  for  the  price 
of  performing  certain  rites,  but  any  abuse  of 
the  kind  can  be  prevented  by  consulting  the 
established  table  of  fees  for  all  such  matters  ; 
so  that  this  infringement  cannot  be  carried  on 
to  any  great  extent. 

There  is  no  manner  of  doubt  that  the  only 
hope  for  the  Orthodox  Church  lies  in  its  sep- 
aration from  Moslem  government.  So  long 
as  its  high  dignitaries  have  to  purchase  their 
appointments  from  Turkish  ministers  and 
Sultans,  so  long  will  it  retain  its  character 
for  truckling  and  corruption,  so  long  will  it 
lack  the  one  thing  needful  in  a  church — 
moral  force.  Not  less  are  the  lower  clergy 
affected  by  this  unhappy  connection  be- 
tween church  and  state.  The  government 
puts  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  schools  for  priests  :  it  is  aware 
that  its  influence  over  the  mass  of  the  clergy 
can  last  only  so  long  as  that  clergy  is 
ignorant  and  knows  not  the  energy  for 
freedom  which  education  must  bring.  Let 
the  Church  be  severed  from  the  control  of  the 
Porte,  let  it  be  assured  of  the  integrity  of  the 
Greek  nation,  and  the  end  of  the  necessity  for 
conciliating  the  Turks,  and  then  we  may 
hope  for  reforms — for  the  regeneration  of  the 
priesthood  and  the  destruction  of  the  web  of 
deadly  superstition  which  it  has  so  long 
found  profitable  to  weave  round  the  hearts  of 
the  people. 

Any  account,  however  brief,  of  the  Greek 
church  would  be  very  incomplete  without 
some  notice  of  the  monasteries  which  the 
traveller  sees  scattered  over  the  country  in 
the  most  beautiful  and  commanding  posi- 
tions, perched  on  the  summit  of  precipitous  , 
rocks,  on  the  steep  slopes  of  hills,  or  nestled 
in  the  shady  seclusion  of  the  glens.  The 
most  renowned  are  the  twenty  monasteries 
of  Mount  Athos,  called  "Aywc  "Opof,  or 
Monte  Santo.  The  population  of  this  penin- 
sula is  quite  unique  of  its  kind.  The  com- 
munity of  monks  is  divided  into  five  classes. 
The  first  comprises  those  who  are  as  it  were 
independent,  and  are  subjected  to  no  severe 
rules.  It  is  impossible  for  a  man  without 
fortune  to  live  in  these  monasteries,  because 
the  common  fund  provides  only  the  rations 
of  bread,  wine,  oil,  etc.  Every  other  outlay 
in  the  way  of  dress  or  the  choice  of  better 
food  is  at  his  own  expense.  Each  prepares 
his  meals  in  his  celL.  and  need  not  fast  unless 
he  chooses,  but  cannot  indulge  in  meat,  as 
its  use  is  stricly  prohibited. 

Eight  monasteries  are  called  independent 
(Idiorrhythmic),  on  account  of  the  manner 
in  which  their  occupants  live.  The  greatest 
of  these  and  the  first  founded  is  MeyioTT) 
Aavpa,  or  Great  Lavra  :  and  the  others  are 
Xeropotamu,  Docheiareiu,  Pantokratoros, 
Stavroniketa,  Philotheu,  Iveron,  and  Vato- 
pedi.  But  these  monasteries  occasionally 
change  their  regime  from  the  stricter  to  the 
laxer  discipline,  or  again  from  the  Idior- 
rhythmic to  the  Cenobite. 

The  second  category  comprises  the  monas- 
teries in  which  the  recluses  live  in  common. 


This  life,  which  is  one  of  great  austerity,  was 
founded  by  the  organizers  of  the  religious 
orders  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  and  repre- 
sents, as  nearly  as  possible,  the  rule  of  the 
ascetics  of  ancient  times.  Community  of 
goods  is  the  regulation  in  these  convents  :  all 
is  equal,  frugal,  and  simple.  There  is  but 
one  treasury,  one  uniform,  one  table,  one 
class  of  food,  and  the  discipline  is  very  rigid. 
Whoever  wishes  to  enter  one  of  these  monas- 
tic establishments  must  give  all  that  he  pos 
sesses  in  the  way  of  money  or  raiment  to  the 
Father  Superior  or  chief  elected  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  institution.  The  neophyte  is  sub- 
mitted to  a  year's  noviciate  ;  and  if,  during 
this  time,  he  can  bear  the  life,  he  is  admitted 
into  the  order  and  consecrated  a  monk.  If, 
on  the  contrary,  the  rigid  and  austere  life  dis- 
heartens him,  he  is  allowed  to  retire.  Each 
monk  possesses  a  camp-bed  in  his  cell,  be- 
sides a  jug  of  water  and  his  clothing  ;  but  he 
is  strictly  forbidden,  under  pain  of  severe 
eccelesiastical  punishment,  to  have  money  or 
any  kind  of  food,  or  even  the  utensils  neces- 
sary for  making  coffee. 

Should  a  monk  find  some  object  on  his 
path,  he  is  obliged  to  deliver  it  to  the  Father 
Superior,  to  whom  he  ought  to  carry  all  his 
sufferings,  physical  and  moral,  in  order  to 
receive  consolation  and  relief.  Every  monk 
belonging  to  this  order  must,  without  shrink- 
ing, execute  the  commands  of  the  Father 
Superior  concerning  the  exterior  and  interior 
affairs  of  the  monastery.  One  third  of  the 
night  is  consecrated  to  prayer  in  the  princi- 
pal church,  where  all  the  brotherhood  are 
expected  to  attend,  with  the  exception  of 
the  sick  and  infirm.  The  ritual  of  prayers  is 
the  same  as  in  all  the  monasteries  of  Mount 
Athos,  except  those  of  the  communal  ascetics. 
Vigils  are  very  frequent,  the  prayers  com- 
mencing at  sunset  and  continuing  till  sunrise. 

The  following  may  be  mentioned  as  be- 
longing to  this  class  :  St.  Paul,  St.  Diony- 
sius,  St.  Gregory,  St.  Simopetra,  and  St. 
Panteleemon,  called  the  Russian  monas- 
teries on  account  of  their  being  principally 
inhabited  by  Russian  and  Greek  monks. 
Xenophu,  Konstamonitu,  and  Zographu,  are 
inhabited  by  Bulgarian  monks,  and  Chilan- 
dari  by  Bulgarians  and  Servians.  The  other 
monasteries  are  Sphigmenu,  Karakallu,  and 
Kutlumusi. 

The  third  category  is  composed  of  monks 
who  live  in  solitude.  Their  rules  resemble 
those  already  described,  but  they  may  be 
considered  to  lead  a  life  of  still  greater  aus- 
terity. Their  groups  of  small  houses,  which 
contain  two  or  three  little  rooms  and  a 
chapel,  are  called  sketes  (<tk>p"7) ;  they  are  j 
surrounded  by  gardens  of  about  an  acre  in  | 
extent.  In  the  midst  of  these  groups  of 
buildings  is  a  church  called  Kvptaxov,  where  j 
ma3s  is  celebrated  on  Sundays  and  feast- 
days,  at  which  service  all  the  monks  are  ex- 
pected to  be  present ;  on  other  days  they 
perform  their  devotions  in  their  own  chapels. 
In  each  of  these  habitations  two  or  three 
monks  lead  a  very  frugal  life  ;  their  food 
consists  of  fresh  or  dry  vegetables,  which  can 
only  be  prepared  with  oil  on  Saturday  and 
Sunday,  when  they  are  allowed  to  eat  fish, 
but  very  seldom  eggs  or  cheese.  The  inhab- 
itants of  the  aKfiri]  support  themselves  entire- 
ly by  their  manual  labor  ;  each  monk  is  re- 
quired to  follow  some  trade  by  which  he  can 
earn  sufficient  for  his  food  and  clothing 
This  consists  mostly  in  the  manufacture  of 
cowls,  stockings,  and  other  articles  of  dress, 
which  are  sold  in  the  neighborhood  ;  with 
the  addition  of  carvings  in  wood  in  the  shape 
of  crosses,  spoons,  etc. ,  with  which  a  small 
commerce  is  carried  on  with  the  pilgrims 
that  visit  the  peninsula.  Each  oktitt]  ought 
to  go  to  Karias  once  a  year,  where  a  fair  is 
held,  to  sell  his  wares,  and  with  the  proceeds 
buy  his  supply  of  food.  There  are  a  great 
many  monks  who,  with  the  exception  of  this 
annual  journey,  go  nowhere,  and  possess  not 
the  remotest  idea  of  what  is  passing  in  the 
world  outside  the  restricted  limits  of  their 


mountain.  On  the  whole,  their  life  is  a  time 
of  continual  toil  in  order  to  procure  what  is 
strictly  necessary  for  their  support,  and  of 
endless  prayer  for  the  eternal  welfare  of  their 
souls. 

The  fourth  category  comprises  the  recluses 
known  as  KeAAturcu.  Their  pretty  houses  are 
sometimes  sufficiently  spacious  and  kept  in 
good  order.  Each  contains  from  four  to  five 
rooms  and  a  chapel,  besides  possessing  large 
extents  of  garden  planted  with  vines,  and 
olive  and  nut  trees.  These  dwellings  are  ten ■> 
anted  by  five  or  six  recluses,  and  belong  to 
convents  that  sell  them  to  the  monks.  But 
the  right  of  possession  is  not  complete,  as  the 
purchasers  are  subjected  to  the  payment  of  a 
small  rent,  and  are  not  allowed  to  transfer 
their  purchase  to  other  persons  without  the 
consent  of  the  monastery.  The  buyer,  being 
the  chief  of  those  who  live  with  him,  con- 
siders them  his  servants  or  subordinates,  and 
they  can  acquire  no  privileges  without  long 
years  of  service.  The  Superior  may  inscribe 
the  names  of  two  other  persons  on  the  title- 
deeds,  who  succeed  according  to  their  order 
in  the  hierarchy.  Such  property  is  never 
made  over  to  persons  of  different  religions, 
the  law  on  this  point  being  very  strict.  A 
new  regulation  is,  that  no  Greek  monastery 
should  be  granted  to  foreigners,  such  as 
Russians,  Bulgarians,  Servians,  or  Walla- 
chians  ;  as  they,  being  richer  than  the  Greeks, 
might  easily  make  themselves  masters  of  the 
whole. 

The  recluses  live  on  the  produce  of  their 
lands  and  seldom  by  the  labor  of  their  hands. 
Many  among  them  have  amassed  a  little  for- 
tune by  the  sale  of  their  oil,  wine,  and  nuts. 
Their  mode  of  living  and  their  food  and 
clothing  are  the  same  as  in  the  other  mon- 
asteries ;  their  ritual  is  also  similar,  with  the 
exception  that  their  devotions  are  performed 
with  more  brevity. 

Take  away  their  solitary  life  and  their  con- 
tinual prayers,  and  they  then  might  be  con- 
sidered as  industrial  companies  belonging  to 
the  world. 

The  fifth  category  comprises  the  ancho- 
rites, whose  rules  are  the  most  sublime  and 
severe.  These  holy  men  do  not  work,  but 
pass  their  time  in  prayer  ,  the  hard  earth 
serves  for  their  bed,  and  a  stone  for  their 
pillow  ;  their  raiment  consists  only  of  a  few 
rags. 

Never  quitting  their  grottoes,  they  pass 
their  days  and  nights  in  prayer  ;  their  food 
is  always  dry  bread,  with  fresh  water  once  a 
week.  If  the  abode  of  the  anchorite  be  sit- 
uated in  an  inaccessible  spot,  he  lets  down  a 
basket,  into  which  the  passers-by  throw  the 
bread  which  is  his  sole  nourishment.  Others 
have  friends  in  some  distant  monastery,  who 
alone  know  the  secret  of  their  retreat  and 
bring  them  provisions.  These  solitary 
beings  shun  the  sight  and  sound  of  man, 
their  life  having  for  its  sole  object  the  morti- 
fication of  the  flesh,  meditation,  and  prayer. 
The  population  of  Mount  Athos  is  estimated 
at  between  six  and  seven  thousand  souls,  two- 
thirds  of  whom  are  Greeks  from  different 
parts  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  the  other 
third  Russians,  Bulgarians,  and  Servians. 
Their  government  is  a  representative  assem- 
bly in  which  deputies  from  the  twenty  mon- 
asteries take  part,  except  the  a/cyrii  and  the 
KelXturai,  who  are  dependants  of  the  others. 
The  twenty  monasteries  are  divided  into  four 
parts,  which  are  again  subdivided  into  five. 
Each  year  a  representative  from  each  division 
is  called  upon  to  take  part  in  the  government 
of  the  peninsula.  Their  duties  consist  prin- 
cipally in  superintending  the  police  and  the 
administration  of  justice.  These  four  gov- 
ernors are  called  nazarides,  a  Turkish  word 
which  signifies  inspectors. 

Twice  a  year  regularly,  and  each  time  a 
serious  case  occurs,  a  kind  of  parliament  is 
called,  consisting  of  the  twenty  deputies, 
who,  with  the  four  nazarides,  occupy  them- 
selves  with  current  affairs  and  common 
wauls.     Each  monastery  acts  independently 


74 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


of  the  others  in  the  administration  of  its 
affairs.  The  chief  inspector,  judge,  and 
spiritual  chief,  who  decides  all  disputes  that 
arise  in  the  monasteries  is  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  The  authority  of  the  Turk- 
ish government  is  represented  by  a  Kaima- 
kam,  who  acts  as  intermediary  between  the 
parliament  and  the  Porte  ;  he  fulfils  rather 
the  duties  of  a  superintendent  than  that  of 
a  governor.  There  is  also  a  custom-house 
officer  to  watch  over  the  importations  and 
importations  of  "  The  Holy  Mountain." 

Some  of  the  monasteries  contain  fine  libra- 
ries and  rich  church  ornaments,  which  are 
the  only  wealth  they  possess.  Each  convent 
is  under  the  protection  of  a  patron  saint,  who 
is  generally  represented  by  some  Weiipava,  or 
relics.  The  anniversaries  of  these  patron 
saints  are  held  in  great  veneration  by  the 
Greeks,  crowds  resorting  to  the  convents  to 
celebrate  them.  Caravans  inaj''  be  seen 
wending  their  way  along  the  mountain  paths 
leading  to  the  convent,  some  mounted  on 
horses  or  mules,  some  on  foot,  while  dozens 
of  small  heads  may  be  seen  peeping  above 
the  brims  of  large  panniers  carried  by  horses. 
On  entering  the  church  attached  to  the  edi- 
fice the  pilgrims  light  tapers,  which  they 
deposit  before  the  shrine  of  the  tutelar  saint, 
cross  themselves  repeatedly,  and  then  join 
the  rest  of  the  company  in  dedicating  the 
evening  to  feasting  and  merry  -  making. 
These  gatherings,  though  blamable  perhaps 
as  being  occasioned  by  superstitious  rites,  are 
otherwise  harmless,  and  even  beneficial  to  the 
masses  ;  to  the  townspeople  in  the  break  in 
their  sedentary  habits,  and  to  the  country- 
people  in  introducing  among  them  more  en- 
lightened and  liberal  ideas,  and  in  facilitating 
social  intercourse  between  them  in  these  Ar- 
cadian gatherings  under  the  shade  of  spread- 
ing plane-trees,  and  stimulated  by  the  circula- 
tion of  the  wine-cup.  I  have  often  visited 
these  Panaghias  and  experienced  real  pleasure 
in  witnessing  the  happy  gambols  of  the  chil- 
dren and  the  gay  dances  and  songs  executed 
by  the  young  people,  and  in  listening  to  the 
conversation  of  those  of  more  mature  years. 
At  meal  times  all  the  assembled  company 
unite  in  an  immense  picnic,  feasting  to  their 
hearts'  content,  on  the  good  fare  with  which 
they  come  provided,  and  to  the  special  profit 
of  the  numerous  hawkers  of  "  scimitiers," 
"  petas,"  parched  peas,  popped  corn,  stale 
sugar-plums,  gum  mastic,  fruits,  flowers, 
little  looking-glasses,  rouge,  etc.  ;  the  last  two 
articles  for  the  benefit  of  the  young  beauties, 
who  may  be  found  adding  to  their  charms 
hidden  behind  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  The 
merriment  is  kept  up  to  a  late  hour,  and  at 
dawn  the  slumberers  are  awakened  by  the 
sound  of  the  monastery  bell  calling  them  to 
mass.  This  is  generally  read  by  the  Egume- 
nos,  or  Prior,  except  when  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese  is  invited  to  celebrate  it,  in  which 
case  the  ceremony  is  naturally  more  impos- 
ing and  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  com- 
munity increased  to  a  slight  extent.  Money, 
however,  is  not  extorted  from  the  worship- 
pers, each  individual  giving  to  the  monastery 
according  to  his  means  and  his  feelings  of  de- 
votion. Kind  and  open  hospitality  is  afforded 
to  all  by  the  good  monks,  whose  retired  and 
simple  mode  of  life  receives  no  variety  but 
from  these  gatherings. 

Women  and  animals  of  the  feminine  gen- 
der are  not  allowed  to  enter  the  precincts  of 
the  "Holy  Mountain."  This  prohibition 
seems  to  be  in  some  way  connected  with  the 
curiosity  of  Lot's  wife,  whose  punishment  is 
expected  to  befall  the  adventurous  daughter 
of  Eve  who  should  thus  transgress.  This 
superstition  has,  however,  lost  much  of  its 
force  since  Lady  Stratford's  visit  to  the  mon- 
asteries during  the  Crimean  War,  when  some 
of  the  monks  tremblingly  watched  for  the 
transformation,  till  they  had  the  satisfaction 
of  seeing  her  Ladyship  quit  the  dangerous 
precincts  in  the  full  possession  of  the  graces 
that  characterized  her. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  the  adoption 


of  the  Orthodox  Creed  by  the  Bulgarians  has 
been  a  blessing  or  a  curse  to  them  ;  for  the 
friendly  union  that  sprang  up  from  the  as- 
similation of  faith  between  the  two  rival  na- 
tions was  not  of  long  duration.  Their  ami- 
cable relations  were  often  disturbed  by  jeal- 
ousies, in  the  settlement  of  which  Chris- 
tianity was  often  used  as  a  cloak  to  cover 
many  ugly  sins  on  both  sides,  and  its  true 
spirit  was  seldom  allowed  free  scope  for  its 
sublime  mission  of  peace,  light,  and  charity. 
Religion  was  the  subject  that  occupied,  after 
the  Crimean  War,  the  minds  of  the  small  en- 
lightened class  of  the  modern  Bulgarians, 
spread  over  all  parts  of  Bulgaria,  but  exist- 
ing in  greater  numbers  in  the  eyalet  of  Phil- 
ippopolis,  where  the  honest,  wealthy,  and  ed- 
ucated men  who  had  in  foreign  lands  imbibed 
the  progressive  ideas  of  the  day,  raised  their 
voices  against  the  then  subjected  condition  of 
their  church  to  that  of  Constantinople,  and 
put  forward  a  just  claim  for  its  separation  or 
independence.  As  already  mentioned,  the  re- 
ligious ties  existing  between  the  Greeks  and 
Bulgarians  do  not  appear  at  any  time  to  have 
formed  a  bond  of  union  between  the  two  na- 
tions, or  promoted  social  or  friendly  feelings 
among  them.  After  the  Turkish  conquest, 
Bulgarians  and  Greeks,  crushed  by  the  same 
blow,  ceased  their  animosity  ;  but  bore  in 
mind  that  one  was  to  serve  in  promoting  Pan- 
slavistic  interests,  and  the  other  those  of  Pan- 
hellenism.  The  proximity  of  these  two  dis- 
tinct elements,  and  the  mixture  of  the  one 
people  with  the  other  by  their  geographical 
position,  render  the  two  extremely  diffident 
of  each  other  and  jealously  careful  of  their 
own  interests,  although  direct  and  open  ac- 
tion on  either  side  has  not  been  prominent. 

The  Bulgarians,  during  the  13th  century, 
had  separated  themselves  from  the  Church  of 
Constantinople.  This  was  a  serious  measure 
which  the  mother  church  naturally  resented 
and  used  every  means  in  her  power  to  abol- 
ish. In  this  she  finally  succeeded  in  1767, 
when  the  Bulgarian  Church  was  once  more 
placed  under  the  immediate  spiritual  juris- 
diction of  the  See  of  Constantinople.  The 
Bulgarian  bishops  were  dismissed  and  their 
dioceses  transferred  to  Greeks,  the  monas- 
teries seized  and  their  revenues  applied  to 
the  Greek  Church.  This  was  doubtless  an 
unjust  blow  which  the  nation  never  forgot, 
nor  did  they  cease  to  reproach  the  Greeks 
with  the  injury  done  to  them.  The  latter 
had,  no  doubt,  a  double  interest  in  the  act, 
and  the  first  and  less  worthy  was  the  mate- 
rial profit  the  clergy  and  Greek  communities 
obtained  by  the  appropriation  of  the  Bulga- 
rian Church  revenues.  The  second  was  a 
strong  political  motive  ;  for  the  right  of  pos- 
sessing an  independent  Bulgarian  Church 
and  cultivating  the  Bulgarian  language 
meant  nothing  less  than  raising  and  develop- 
ing the  future  organ  of  Panslavism  in  dis- 
tricts the  Greeks  consider  they  have  a  hered- 
itary right  to  ;  their  national  interests  were, 
in  fact,  at  stake.  The  men  to  whom  was 
intrusted  the  duty  of  protecting  these  inter- 
ests were  unscrupulous  as  to  the  means  they 
used  in  the  fulfilment  of  their  task,  and  a 
perpetual  struggle  ensued,  resulting  in  perse- 
cution and  other  crimes  besides  the  unjust 
dealing  with  which  the  Bulgarians  charge 
their  rivals.  Both  parties,  from  their  own 
point  of  view,  are  right ;  and  there  is  noth- 
ing for  them  but  to  keep  up  the  conflict  till 
some  decisive  victory,  or  perhaps  arbitration, 
settles  the  dispute. 

The  Bulgarian  Church  question  re-com- 
menced in  1858  and  lasted  until  1872,  during 
which  time  the  bitter  strife  was  renewed  be- 
tween the  two  nations,  inducing  the  Bulga- 
rians to  demand  from  the  Porte  the  fulfilment 
of  the  promises  made  in  decreed  reforms  to 
guarantee  liberty  of  religious  worship  and  the 
church  reforms  indicated  in  the  Hatti-scherif 
of  Gulhane. 

These  demands  were  just  and  reasonable, 
and  at  first  limited  to  the  request  that  the 
Porte  would    grant  permission  that  Bulga- 


j  rians,  or  at  least  men  capable  of  speaking 
;  their  language,  should  alone  be  appointed 
bishops  ;  that  the  service  in  their  churches, 
instead  of  being  performed  in  the  ancient 
Greek,  a  tongue  unknown  to  the  Bulgarians, 
should  be  performed  in  the  native  language, 
and  other  similar  demands,  which  the  Greek 
patriarch  very  unwisely  refused  to  listen  to. 
Previously  to  this,  in  1851,  the  Porte  had 
obliged  the  patriarch  to  consecrate  a  Bulga- 
rian bishop. 

In  a  church  which  the  Bulgarians  had 
erected  by  permission  of  the  Porte  at  Con- 
stantinople, in  1860,  during  the  celebration 
of  Easter,  the  Bulgarian  bishop,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  congregation,  omitted  from  the 
customary  prayer  the  name  of  the  patriarch. 
This  was  the  first  decisive  step  towards  the 
accomplishment  of  the  schism  that  took  place 
subsequently.  The  example  set  by  this  bish- 
op was  followed  in  manv  parts  of  Bulgaria  ; 
occasionally  the  name  of  the  Sultan  was  sub- 
stituted for  that  of  the  patriarch.  The  excite- 
ment this  movement  caused  in  Bulgaria  was 
intense,  and  acted  upon  the  dormant  minds 
of  the  people  with  a  force  that  pushed  them 
at  least  ten  years  in  advance  of  what  they 
had  been,  and  opened  their  eyes  to  things 
they  had  failed  previously  to  observe. 

The  Porte,  alarmed  by  this  sudden  effer- 
vescence of  public  feeling  in  Bulgaria,  de- 
spatched the  Grand  Vizir  on  a  tour  in  that 
country  to  study  the  feeling  of  the  people. 
At  his  approach  the  inhabitants  of  every 
town  flocked  to  his  presence  and  brought 
their  grievances  under  his  notice.  The  viz- 
ir's action  was  as  just  and  impartial  as  cir- 
cumstances would  allow  ;  he  listened  to  the 
grievances  of  the  people,  righted  many  of 
their  wrongs,  imprisoned  some  officials  and 
dismissed  others  ;  but,  notwithstanding,  the 
Bulgarians  failed  to  obtain  on  this  occasion 
any  great  material  amelioration  either  of  their 
condition  or  with  regard  to  the  Church  ques- 
tion. 

At  this  stage  all  true  Bulgarians,  includ- 
ing those  of  the  rural  districts,  were  fully 
aroused  ;  and,  reminded  by  their  respective 
chieftains,  or  heads  of  communities,  of  the 
importance  of  the  pending  question,  and  the 
necessity  of  united  action,  they  determined 
to  fight  the  battle  with  the  patriarch  and 
overcome  the  opposition  they  continued  to 
meet  with  from  that  quarter.  Help  of  any 
description  was  desirable  for  them,  and  even 
foreign  agency  was  prudently  courted.  The 
Porte  was  given  to  understand  that  it  pos- 
sessed no  subjects  more  faithful  and  devoted 
than  the  Bulgarians,  and  that  the  rights  they 
demanded  could  be  only  obtained  from  it, 
and  if  their  Sultan  decided  in  their  favor  he 
would  secure  their  eternal  gratitude  and  de- 
votion. Rome  began  to  take  an  interest  in 
the  matter,  and  the  Government  of  Napoleon 
III,  stimulated  by  the  Uniate  Propaganda, 
headed  by  some  Polish  dignitaries  established 
in  Paris,  endeavored  to  secure  a  hold  upon 
the  people  by  means  of  the  priests  and  agents 
sent  into  Bulgaria,  and  people  were  made  to 
believe  that  the  whole  of  Bulgaria  was  ready 
to  adopt  Roman  Catholicism  and  place  itself 
under  the  protection  of  France.  (See  the  next 
chapter.) 

Russia,  alarmed  by  these  rumors,  also  be- 
gan  to  show  signs  of  active  interest  in  the 
matter,  and  by  her  promises  of  assistance. 
her  efforts  to  counteract  the  Uniate  move- 
ment, and  the  pressure  she  finally  began  to 
enforce  upon  the  Porte  in  favor  of  the  Bul- 
garian church  movement,  ended  in  gaining  to 
her  side  a  small  but  influential  body  of  Bul- 
garians in  the  Danubian  districts.  There 
was  a  critical  moment  when  the  Bulgarians, 
thinking  all  was  lost  for  them,  turned  their 
hopes  and  even  appealed  to  England  for  help, 
promising  that  if  this  were  granted  they 
would  become  Protestants.  The  missiona- 
ries of  the  Evangelical  and  other  Protestant 
societies  were  led  to  believe  in  the  possibility 
of  such  a  conversion,  and  became  doubly 
zealous  in  their  efforts  to  enlighten  the  peo- 


THE   PEOPLE  OP  TURRET. 


75 


pie.  In  the  midst  of  this  conflicting  state  of 
affairs,  when  each  party  tried  to  enforce  its 
own  views  and  derive  the  most  profit,  the 
church  of  Constantinople  remained  inflexi- 
ble, the  Porte  took  to  compromising,  and  the 
Bulgarians,  doggedly  and  steadily  working 
on,  by  degrees  became  more  venturesome  in 
their  action,  more  pressing  in  their  demands, 
and  more  independent  in  their  proceedings. 
Greek  bishops  were  ejected  from  their  dio- 
ceses in  Bulgaria  and  driven  away  by  the 
people.  In  Nish  and  other  places  monaster- 
ies were  seized,  and  their  incomes  re-appro- 
priated by  the  Bulgarian  communities.  Per- 
sonal encounters  and  struggles  of  a  strangely 
unchristian  nature  were  frequent  between  the 
contending  parties,  sometimes  taking  place 
even  within  the  precincts  of  the  churches. 
The  struggle  for  independence  continued,  in 
spite  of  the  anathemas  hurled  against  the 
Bulgarians  by  the  Patriarchate,  and  was  en- 
couraged by  the  desertion  of  two  Bishops  to 
their  side.  The  exile  of  these  by  the  Porte, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  Patriarch,  and  a  va- 
riety of  other  incidents  ensued,  until  in  1868 
Pouad  and  AH  Pashas  took  up  the  Bulgarian 
cause,  and  the  exiled  Bishops  were  recalled 
(February  28th,  1870). 

Through  the  instrumentality  of  the  latter  a 
Pirman  was  issued  constituting  a  Bulgarian 
Exarch,  and  permission  was  given  to  the  Bul- 
garians to  elect  their  spiritual  chief,  the  elec- 
tion to  be  confirmed  by  a  Berat  of  the  Sultan. 

Ali  Pasha's  death,  however,  in  1871,  caused 
new  difficulties,  and  the  enforcement  of  this 
measure  was,  under  different  pretexts,  de- 
layed during  the  ministry  of  his  successor, 
Mahmoud  Pasha,  and  ultimately  only  ful- 
filled in  consequence  of  the  proportions  the 
question  had  assumed,  and  the  active  inter- 
est taken  in  it  by  Russia  as  shown  in  the  pol- 
icy of  General  Ignatieff.  This  policy  was 
not  approved  of  by  the  majority  of  thinking 
Bulgarians,  who,  with  good  reason,  dreaded 
the  consequences  of  Russian  influence  based 
on  the  solid  assistance  it  had  rendered  to  the 
Bulgarian  church.  Russia  from  all  times 
has  made  use  of  the  churches  and  monaster- 
ies in  Bulgaria,  largely  endowing  them  with 
sacerdotal  gifts,  in  order  to  consolidate  her 
influence  and  gain  the  faith  and  confidence 
of  the  people. 

All  now  is  confusion,  darkness,  and  uncer- 
tainty in  Bulgaria.  Their  churches,  inaugu- 
rated with  so  much  hope  and  confidence, 
have  been  polluted  with  every  crime  and 
stained  with  the  blood  of  innumerable  vic- 
tims. Centuries  must  pass  before  the  wrongs 
and  misfortunes  of  late  years  can  be  forgotten 
by  this  unhappy  people. 

There  is  yet  another  Christian  Church  in 
Turkey  which  must  have  a  place  in  this 
chapter.  St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator,  the 
patron  saint  of  Armenia,  is  looked  upon  as 
the  effective  bearer  of  that  heavenly  light 
that  was  to  extinguish  the  beacons  of  the 
fire-worshippers  and  found  the  Armenian 
Church.  In  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury of  our  era  this  saint  preached  in  court 
of  Tiridates,  who,  evidently  little  disposed  at 
the  time  to  accept  the  new  faith,  vented  his 
ill-humor  against  it  by  ordering  the  martyr- 
dom of  its  preacher.  The  most  agonizing 
tortures,  say  the  Armenian  annals,  inflicted 
upon  St.  Gregory  failed  in  the  desired  effect. 
Finally,  after  having  been  made  to  walk  on 
pointed  nails,  and  having  melted  lead  poured 
down  his  throat,  he  was  cast  into  a  cistern, 
among  snakes  and  scorpions,  where  he  lived 
fourteen  years,  daily  fed  by  an  angel,  who 
brought  him  bread  and  water.  At  the  end 
of  this  period  he  was  allowed  to  issue  from 
his  dismal  abode,  and  was  called  upon  to 
baptize  the  penitent  king  and  his  nobles,  con- 
verted through  the  instrumentality  of  the 
king's  sister,  to  whom  the  Christian  religion 
was  revealed  in  a  vision.  Such  is  the  legend- 
ary origin  of  Christianity  in  Armenia.  The 
new  faith  enforced  by  royalty  was  soon 
spread  through  the  country.  St.  Gregory 
was   appointed  Patriarch  of  Armenia,  and 


after  creating  a  number  of  churches,  bishop- 
rics, and  convents,  and  regulating  the  canons 
of  each,  he  retired  into  the  solitude  of  a  her- 
mitage, where  he  was  put  to  death  by  order 
of  the  king's  son.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a 
long  course  of  misfortunes.  There  is  some- 
thing grand  in  the  sacrifice  that  the  ignorant 
and  stout-hearted  Asiatics  made  in  the  cause 
of  religion.  Nowhere  was  persecution  so 
long  or  so  cruel,  martyrdoms  so  terrible, 
self-denial  so  complete  as  among  the  people 
of  the  land  where  the  human  race  is  fabled 
to  have  had  its  origin. 

St.  Gregory  was  succeeded  in  the  Patri- 
archal chair  by  his  son  Aristogus,  who,  hav- 
ing taken  part  in  the  Council  of  Nice  in  325 
a.d.,  brought  back  with  him  some  of  its  de 
crees,  and  caused  the  first  schism  in  the 
church.  The  terrible  religious  dissensions 
that  raged  for  so  many  centuries  made  them- 
selves as  deeply  felt  in  Armenia  as  elsewhere. 
Every  dogma  of  Christianity  was  in  turn  ex- 
amined, adopted,  or  rejected,  until  the  Mo- 
nophysitic  views,  gaining  the  majority  of  the 
people,  caused  the  schism  that  finally  sepa- 
rated the  Armenian  from  the  primitive 
church. 

The  two  parties,  though  differing  but 
slightly  from  each  other,  cease  not,  even  to 
the  present  day,  their  antagonism.  The 
schismatics  affirm  the  absorption  of  the  hu- 
man nature  of  Christ  into  the  Divine — the 
procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Fa- 
ther alone — redemption  from  original  sin  by 
the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  redemption  from  ac- 
tual sin  by  auricular  confession  and  penance. 
They  adhere  to  the  seven  sacraments,  per- 
form baptism  by  trine  immersion,  believe  in 
the  mediation  of  saints,  the  adoration  of  pic- 
tures, and  transubstantiation,  and  administer 
the  sacrament  in  both  kinds  to  laymen  ;  they 
deny  purgatorial  penance  and  yet  invoke  the 
prayers  of  the  pious  for  the  benefit  of  the 
souls  of  the  departed. 

The  Armenian  Church  differs  from  the  Lat- 
in in  seven  points.  Its  doctrine  is  contained 
in  the  following  formula,  which  the  candi- 
dates for  priestly  office  are  obliged  to  profess 
before  ordination  :  "  We  believe  in  Jesus 
Christ,  one  person  and  a  double  nature,  and 
in  conformity  with  the  Holy  Fathers  we  re- 
ject and  detest  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  the 
letter  of  St.  Leon  to  Flavian  ;  we  say  anath- 
ema to  every  sect  that  denies  the  two  na- 
tures." 

In  Church  polity,  after  long  quarrels  and 
bickerings  between  three  patriarchs,  each 
following  his  own  interest,  rivalries,  and  rites, 
the  supremacy  has  at  last  been  vested  in  one 
who  is  called  Catholicos,  chosen  from  among 
the  Armenian  archbishops  and  appointed  by 
the  Emperor  of  Russia.  The  seat  of  the 
Patriarchate  is  the  famous  convent  of  Ech- 
miadzin at  Erivan,  in  Russian  territory. 
This  convent  contains  a  magnificent  library, 
is  extremely  wealthy,  and  exercises  supreme 
power  over  the  others  in  spiritual  matters. 
It  alone  has  the  right  to  ordain  archbishops 
to  the  forty- two  archbishoprics  under  its 
control,  and  to  settle  points  of  dogma. 
Among  the  pretended  relics  it  possesses  are 
the  dead  hand  of  St.  Gregory,  used  for  con- 
secrating his  successors  in  the  Patriarchate, 
and  the  lance  with  which  Christ  was  pierced. 
This  convent  of  Echmiadzin  is  to  the  Anne- 1 
nians  what  Mount  Athos  has  been  to  the 
Greeks.  In  both,  Russia  has  spared  neither 
expense  nor  effort  to  establish  her  influence 
and  spread  it  by  means  of  these  channels  all 
over  the  Christian  populations  of  the  East. 
Her  too  stirring  policy  at  Mount  Athos,  as 
shown  by  the  publication  of  "  Les  Responsa- 
bilites,"  and  her  attempt  to  enforce  upon  the 
Catholicos  of  Echmiadzin  the  decree  for  the 
suppression  of  the  Armenian  language  in  the  j 
churches  and  schools,  and  replacing  it  by  j 
Russian,  had  an  equally  unfortunate  result. 

The  efforts  of  the  Russian  Government  to 
improve  the  condition  of  this  country  are 
said  to  have  met  with  a  certain  amount  of 
success  ;  commerce  and  industry,  encouraged 


by  the  creation  of  roads  and  other  facilities, 
have  ocen  the  principal  temptations  held  out 
to  emigrants  from  Turkish  territory.  Of  all 
the  European  powers  Russia  alone  could  help 
to  civilize  and  improve  the  degraded  condl 
tion  of  the  Christians  of  those  distant  regions. 
Her  influence  would  have  been  stronger  and 
more  beneficial  to  them  if  her  policy  had 
been  a  more  straightforward  and  liberal  one, 
and  more  in  accordance  with  the  national 
rights  of  the  people  whose  good-will  and  con- 
fidence she  will  fail  to  secure  so  long  as  she 
follows  the  old  system  of  trying  to  Russian- 
ize them  by  the  suppression  of  their  privi- 
leges. 

The  Armenian  churches  are  not  unlike 
those  of  the  Greeks  ;  they  are  similar  in  dec- 
oration—pictures of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and 
the  saints  being  the  principal  ornaments  of 
their  altars.  These  pictures  are  slightly  su- 
perior to  the  expressionless  ones  used  by  the 
Greeks.  The  pious  often  decorate  parts  of 
these  with  a  silver  or  gold  coating  on  the 
hands,  or  as  an  aureole,  and  sometimes  over 
the  whole  body.  The  Armenians  have  faith 
in  the  efficacy  of  prayers  addressed  to  these 
images,  as  well  as  in  the  laying  of  hands  on 
the  sick  or  distressed,  who  are  often  taken  to 
the  church  and  left  through  the  night  before 
the  altar  of  some  special  saint.  The  Arme- 
nian patriarchs  and  bishops  enjoy  the  same 
rights  and  privileges  as  the  Greeks,  and  ad- 
minister justice  to  their  respective  communi- 
ties on  the  same  conditions. 

Like  the  Greek,  the  Armenian  clergy  are  of 
two  orders,  secular  and  monastic  ;  the  for- 
mer are  allowed  to  marry,  but  never  occupy 
a  high  position  in  the  church.  They  are 
usually  very  poor,  even  poorer  and  more  re- 
tired than  the  Greek  parish  priests,  living 
like  the  lower  orders  of  the  people,  who  look 
upon  them  as  their  friends.  Although  igno- 
rant, they  are  much  respected  for  the  moral- 
ity of  their  lives,  but  knowing  nothing  more 
than  the  routine  of  their  office  they  are  un- 
able to  give  any  religious  instruction  to  their 
parishioners  beyond  that  contained  in  the 
books  of  prayer  used  in  the  church  ;  a  pas- 
sage from  the  lives  or  writings  of  the  saints  is 
read  in  place  of  a  sermon. 

This  drawback  to  the  propagation  of  more 
practical  religion  is  being  by  degrees  removed 
since  the  introduction  of  excellent  religious 
books  published  by  the  Mechitarist  College 
at  Venice,  and  by  the  American  Missionary 
societies.  The  latter  especially  have  done 
much  to  stimulate  the  dormant  spirit  of  in- 
quiry ;  the  large  circulation  of  Bibles,  which 
by  their  low  price  are  brought  within  the 
reach  of  all,  encourages  the  propensity  shown 
by  the  Armenians  to  admit  Protestant  ideas, 
which  are  being  daily  more  extensively 
spread  among  the  community.  ' '  In  Central 
Turkey  alone  there  are  now  no  less  than 
twenty-six  organized  churches,  with  some 
2500  members,  and  audiences  amounting  in 
the  aggregate  to  5000  or  6000  steady  attend- 
ants." 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 

RELIGIOT/8    TOLERANCE    AND     MISSIONARY 
WORK. 

Turkish  Tolerance— High  Disdain  for  Christians- 
American  Mission  Work — Roman  Catholic  Mission- 
aries— Catholic  Establishments — The  Uniates — United 
Armenians — Mechitar — The  Two  Parties — Persecu- 
tions—European Interference — The  Hassounists — The 
Hope  for  Armenia. 

From  the  time  of  the  Ottoman  conquest 
spiritual  liberty  has  been  allowed  to  all  creeds 
in  Turkey,  and  the  external  observances  and 
ceremonies  of  religion  have,  in  most  places, 
been  permitted  by  the  Moslems,  though  in 
some  even  funeral  ceremonies  were  often 
molested,  and  the  use  of  church  bells  was 
forbidden.  Certain  rights  and  privileges 
were  granted  to  each  church,  to  which  the 
Christians  clung  with  great  tenacity — as  to  a 
sacred  banner,  round  which  they  would  one 
day  rally  and  march  to  freedom. 

.  By  the  concessions  granted  to  the  van- 
quished by  their  conquerors,  they  were  al- 


76 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


lowed  to  retain  those  churches  that  had  es- 
caped destruction  or  were  not  converted  into 
mosques,  and  permitted  to  worship  accord- 
ing to  the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences 
so  long  as  the  sound  of  their  bell  calling  the 
infidels  to  prayer  did  not  offend  the  ear  of 
the  faithful.  The  internal  administration 
was  not  interfered  with  ;  each  congregation 
was  free  to  choose  its  own  clergy,  ornament 
the  interior  of  its  church  as  it  saw  fit,  per- 
form its  pilgrimages  and  bury  its  dead,  with- 
out interference  from  the  authorities.  These 
privileges,  though  looked  upon  as  sacred  by 
the  poor,  could  not  compensate  in  the  sight 
of  the  rich  and  once  powerful  for  social  and 
material  losses  ;  thus  many  Christians  re- 
nounced their  faith  and  adopted  that  of  their 
masters. 

Time  and  succeeding  events  have  softened 
down  some  of  the  outstanding  wrongs  ;  fa- 
natical outbreaks  and  religious  persecutions 
have  become  of  less  frequent  occurrence  ; 
and  the  various  Hattis  proclaiming  freedom 
of  worship  and  religious  equality  to  all  Otto- 
man subjects  before  the  law,  are  guarantees 
that  no  arbitrary  action  on  the  part  of  the 
government  can  interfere  with  the  religious 
privileges  of  the  Christians,  or  deprive  them 
of  their  rights.  Though  this  guarantee  is  a 
proof  of  the  sincerity  of  the  Porte  in  its 
efforts  to  give  satisfaction  to  its  Christian 
subjects,  it  cannot  remove  the  evil  or  lessen 
its  consequences,  which  remain  in  all  their 
force  of  danger  and  uncertainty.  Every 
.  movement  of  discontent  in  Turkey  receives  a 
strong  impulse  from  that  religious  zeal  which 
stimulates  the  Mohammedan  to  acts  of  fanati- 
cal barbarity,  and  the  Christian  to  a  supersti- 
tious belief  in  miraculous  powers  that  will 
protect  him  in  the  hour  of  danger.  Thus,  in 
times  of  disturbance  the  timorous  bulk  of  the 
population  of  a  town  or  village  will  rush  to 
the  church  for  safety,  there  pouring  out  min- 
gled prayers  and  tears  to  God  and  all  the 
saints  that  the  threatened  danger  may  be 
averted.  Rarely,  it  would  seem,  are  such 
prayers  heard,  for  the  first  place  to  which 
the  excited  Mussulman  rushes  is  the  church, 
and  thither  the  brigand  chief  will  lead  his 
band,  and  perpetrate  acts  of  the  most  revolt- 
ing barbarity.  The  armed  peasant,  the  un- 
disciplined soldier,  or  the  cruel  and  licentious 
Bashi-Bazouk  will  all  attack  the  sacred  edi- 
fice, break  it  open,  and  destroy  or  pollute  all 
that  falls  into  their  hands.  These  are  the 
ever-recurring  evils  that  no  Imperial  law  will 
be  able  to  prevent,  no  measures  eradicate,  so 
long  as  the  two  rival  creeds  continue  to  exist 
face  to  face,  and  be  used  as  the  principal  mo- 
tives in  -the  struggle,  past  and  present,  for 
suprema%  on  one  side,  freedom  and  inde- 
pendence on  the  other.  The  Mussulmans, 
under  pressure,  will  grant  every  concession 
demanded  of  them,  and  to  a  great  extent 
carry  them  out ;  but  it  would  be  utterly  er- 
roneous to  suppose  for  a  moment  that  under 
any  pressure  or  in  any  degree  of  civilization, 
the  Turk  would  be  abjie  to  disabuse  himself 
of  the  deeply-rooted  disdain  the  most  liberal- 
minded  of  his  race  feels  for  strangers  to  his 
creed  and  nation. 

The  experiences  of  all  thoroughly  acquaint- 
ed with  the  character  of  the  Ottoman  tallies 
with  mine  on  this  point.  I  have  seen  the 
disdain  felt  by  the  Mohammedan  towards 
the  Christian  portrayed  on  the  faces  of  the 
most  liberal,  virtuous,  and  well-disposed,  as 
well  as  on  those  of  the  most  bigoted.  A 
Christian,  be  he  European  or  Asiatic,  is  an  in- 
fidel in  the  Moslem's  sight.  He  will  receive 
him  graciously,  converse  with  him  in  the 
most  amicable  manner,  and  at  the  same  time 
mumble  prayers  for  pardon  for  his  sin  in 
holding  communication  with  an  unbeliever. 

The  religious  freedom  enjoyed  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic 
churches  is  far  more  extensive  than  thai  en- 
joyed by  the  Eastern.  Both,  upheld  by  the 
powerful  support  of  European  powers,enjoy  a 
liberty  of  action  and  license  of  speech  rarely 
found  in  other  countries.  Both  are  aliens  and 


owe  their  origin  to  the  proselytizing  efforts 
of  the  missionaries.  The  Church  of  Rome, 
being  the  older  and  more  enterprising,  natu- 
rally commands  a  much  vaster  field  than  the 
Protestant  ;  she  is  supported  by  France  and 
other  Roman  Catholic  countries,  who  jeal- 
ously watch  over  her  rights  and  privileges. 
The  Protestants  are  protected  by  England 
and  America  ;  their  missionaries  entered  Tur- 
key at  a  later  date  and  gradually  estab- 
lished themselves  over  the  country.  At  first 
the  extremely  reserved  attitude  of  the  mis- 
sionaries, their  conscientious  method  of  mak- 
ing converts,  and  the  extreme  severity  of 
their  regulations,  gave  them  but  a  poor 
chance  of  success.  Gradually,  however,  the 
esteem  and  regard  of  the  people  for  them  in- 
creased ;  stringent  opposition,  promoted  by 
sectarian  dissensions,  died  out,  and  mission 
stations,  with  numerous  churches,  some  of 
considerable  importance  and  promise,  were 
established,  especially  in  Armenia.  The 
principal  cause  of  the  encouragement  they 
met  with  was  the  wise  policy,  lately  adopt- 
ed, of  promoting  missionary  work  by  educa- 
tion. 

The  extensive  body  of  Protestant  mission- 
aries now  found  in  Turkey  is  almost  entirely 
American.  The  meetings  of  the  Board  are 
held  in  Constantinople  ;  it  controls  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  different  missions  and  di- 
rects the  large  American  College  at  Bebek — 
the  best  foreign  institute  for  education  in  the 
country. 

When  a  community  of  Protestant  converts 
numbers  a  few  families  it  is  given  a  church 
and  school,  and  one  of  the  principal  men  is 
elected  as  chief  of  the  society.  This  person 
is  presented  officially  to  the  authorities  by 
one  of  the  consuls  of  the  protecting  powers 
— generally  the  English  ;  he  is  recognized  as 
chief  of  his  community,  obtains  a  seat  in  the 
local  court,  and  is  intrusted  with  all  the  in 
terests  of  his  co-religionists.  In  difficult  or 
complicated  cases  the  missionaries  themselves 
share  the  responsibilities  of  this  chief,  and 
through  consular  or  ambassadorial  agency 
generally  settle  all  matters  calling  for  redress 
and  justice  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 

The  few  English  missionaries  who  are  es- 
tablished in  Turkey  are  intrusted  with  the 
fruitless  task  of  endeavoring  to  convert  the 
Jews. 

The  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  from 
the  date  of  the  separation  of  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches,  have  ever  been  actively 
and  diligently  employed  in  making  converts. 
Thus  a  great  portion  of  the  population  of 
Syria,  yielding  to  their  influence,  has  become 
Roman  Catholic,  as  have  the  Bosnians,  a 
portion  of  the  Albanians,  some  of  the  Greeks 
inhabiting  the  islands,  the  Armenians  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  of  later  years  a  small  portion 
of  the  Bulgarians.  The  action  of  the  mis- 
sionaries of  late  years  has  not,  however,  been 
so  much  directed  towards  making  new  con- 
verts as  it  has  to  consolidating  and  strength- 
ening the  tie  binding  the  few  scattered  com- 
munities to  the  mother-church.  This  relig- 
ious body  recruits  itself  chiefly  from  France 
and  Italy,  and  consists  of  priests,  monks,  and 
Sisters  of  Charity,  belonging  chiefly  to  the  o»- 
ders  of  St.  Benois,  the  Jesuits,  Lazarists,  and 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  Their  extensive  estab- 
lishments are  situated  in  the  Frank  quarters 
of  the  towns,  and  consist  of  well-built  and 
spacious  churches,  monasteries,  schools, 
orphan  asylums,  and  foundling  hospitals. 
Pera  and  Galata  contain  a  goodly  number  of 
these  establishments,  as  do  the  principal 
towns  of  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey. 
These  missions  are  evidently  well  furnished 
with  funds,  for  their  establishments  have 
everywhere  a  prosperous  appearance,  and 
are  provided  with  every  requisite  for  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  intended.  The  re- 
ligious instruction  given  in  them  is,  how- 
ever, extremely  illiberal,  bigoted,  and  impart- 
ed on  Jesuitical  principles.  Exclusiveness 
and  intolerance  towards  other  creeds  are 
openly  prescribed.     "  Point  de  salut  hois  de 


l'Eglise"  is  their  doctrine.  Considerable 
laxity  is  allowed  in  moral  points  so  long  as 
they  do  not  interfere  with  the  external  duties 
of  the  community  to  the  church.  Should  an 
individual  belonging  to  another  creed  die 
among  the  community,  the  rite  of  burial  will 
be  refused  to  him  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
priests,  but  those  of  the  Orthodox  Church 
will  often  in  that  case  consent  to  perform  it. 
Even  the  marriage  ceremony,  unless  per- 
formed in  their  churches,  is  considered  by 
the  more  bigoted  portion  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic clergy  as  not  binding.  This  strange 
statement  was  made  in  my  presence  before  a 
large  gathering  of  persons  belonging  to  dif- 
ferent creeds,  by  the  superior  of  a  Lazarist 
establishment  at  A .  It  was  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  marriage  of  two  members  of  the 
Latin  community  of  that  town,  when  the  ser- 
vice was  terminated  by  the  following  short 
address  to  the  married  couple  :  "  Twice 
happy  are  you  to  belong  to  the  Holy  Church 
of  Rome  and  to  be  united  in  the  sacred  ties 
of  matrimony  within  her  bosom  :  for  in  the 
same  manner  as  there  is  no  hope  after  life 
for  those  who  do  not  belong  to  her,  so  mar- 
riage is  not  binding  out  of  her,  but  every 
woman  who  so  gives  herself  is  not  a  legal 
wife  but  a  concubine  !"  In  many  cases  the 
sacrament  is  refused  to  ladies  united  in  mar- 
riage to  persons  belonging  to  other  creeds. 

The  secular  teaching  given  in  the  schools 
of  these  missions  is  limited,  and,  based  on  the 
same  principles  as  the  religion,  is  illiberal  and 
narrow-minded.  Much  time  is  consecrated 
by  the  pupils  to  religious  recitations,  prayers, 
and  penances  of  no  possible  profit  to  the 
children.  Thus  from  an  early  age,  imbued 
with  narrow  ideas  and  made  to  lose  sight  of 
the  spirit  of  Christianity,  the  Roman  Catho- 
i  lie  communities,  be  they  of  European,  Greek, 
or  Armenian  nationality,  are  the  most  bigot- 
ed, intolerant,  and  exclusive  of  all  the  Chris- 
tian communities  of  the  East. 

The  missionaries  belonging  to  this  Church 
are  unsurpassed  in  the  admirable  manner  in 
which  their  charitable  establishments  are  ar- 
ranged. The  homes  and  asylums  for  the 
poor  and  orphan  children  are  for  the  girls 
under  the  control  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity, 
and  for  the  boys  under  that  of  the  priests  and 
monks.  These  are  well  kept,  and  very  or- 
derly, the  food  is  good  and  abundant,  and 
the  dress  of  the  children  solid  and  befitting 
their  condition.  Hospitals  are  attached  to 
each  establishment,  where  the  sick  are  well 
cared  for  and  destitute  Europeans  admitted 
irrespective  of  creed.  The  good  Sisters  of 
Charity  take  upon  themselves  the  duty  of 
watching  over  the  patients  night  and  day. 
A  dispensary  is  included  in  each  mission  sta- 
tion, where  medicines  and  medical  advice  are 
given  gratuitously.  The  children  reared  in 
these  establishments  are  placed  in  situations 
on  leaving  them  ;  but  1  regret  to  be  obliged 
to  say  that  comparatively  few  of  either  sex 
are  known  to  turn  out  honest  and  respecta- 
ble. 

The  retired  lives  led  by  these  active  ser- 
vants of  Rome  do  not  prevent  their  being 
very  intimately  connected  with  their  respec- 
tive communities  or  using  their  all-powerful 
influence  for  good  or  for  evil  in  all  family 
concerns.  They  are  hardy,  active,  and  most 
persevering  ;  their  personal  wants  are  small 
and  their  mode  of  living  modest  and  unas- 
suming. But  in  spite  of  this  they  are  world- 
ly-wise, crafty,  and  unscrupulous  as  to  the 
means  they  use  in  obtaining  their  ends. 
Their  mode  of  action  is  based  upon  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  end  justifies  the  means  ;  few, 
therefore,  are  the  scruples  that  will  arrest 
their  action  or  the  dangers  and  difficulties 
that  will  damp  their  courage  or  check  their 
ardor  in  their  work 

All  the  internal  regulations  and  arrange- 
ments of  the  Catholic  community  are  made 
without  the  Porte  troubling  itself  much 
about  them — indeed,  to  do  the  Turk  justice, 
in  his  high  contempt  for  tilings  Christian,  he 
keeps  as  much  as  possible  out  of  the  religious 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  TURKEY. 


77 


dissensions  of  his  subjects,  and  when  by 
chance  he  does  appear  on  the  sceneof  action, 
by  turns  persecutor,  protector,  or  peace- 
maker, he  is  generally  prompted  in  the  mat- 
ter by  one  of  the  interested  parties.  An 
amusing  incident  witnessed  by  one  of  my 
friends  at  Jerusalem  well  illustrates  this  fact. 
This  gentleman  accompanied  one  of  the 
peacemaking  governors-general  to  the  Holy 
City  at  the  time  the  quarrel  of  the  possession 
of  the  little  door  leading  to  the  Sepulchre 
was  at  its  highest.  All  the  interested  parties 
loaded  the  Pasha  with  acts  of  politeness  and 
civility,  which  he  received  with  great  urbani- 
ty ;  but  when  the  great  question  was  delicate- 
ly broached  in  the  course  of  conversation,  he 
at  once  turned  round  and  exclaimed,  Turkish 
fashion,  ' '  Oh,  my  soul  !  I  pray  do  not  open 
that  door  to  me  I 

There  is  little  to  be  said  about  the  Uniates, 
or  Bulgarian  Catholic  converts  in  Turkey. 
The  movement  in  its  commencement,  effects, 
and  results  may  be  compared  to  Midhat 
Pasha's  Constitution — a  farce  and  imposition 
from  beginning  to  end.  Like  the  Constitu- 
tion, the  Uniate  movement  broke  out  in  the 
midst  of  a  hot  fever  of  excitement  and  dis- 
content ;  the  first  was  created  as  a  palliative 
for  Turkish  misrule,  the  second  emanated 
from  the  mismanagement  of  a  church.  The 
disputes  between  the  Greeks  and  Bulgarians 
on  the  church  question  was  at  its  height 
when  a  certain  number  of  Bulgarians,  carried 
away  by  the  hope  of  ameliorating  the  actual 
condition  of  things  and  ultimately  obtaining 
their  end,  viz.,  the  emancipation  of  the  Bul- 
garian Church  from  the  Greek,  accepted  the 
nominal  supremacy  of  the  Romish  Church, 
and  by  a  fictitious  conversion  became  at- 
tached to  it  under  the  denomination  of  Uni- 
ates. Their  number,  at  first  small,  would 
probably  have  remained  so  had  it  not  been 
that  some  effective  arguments  and  causes 
gave  it  a  momentary  impetus,  bringing  it 
under  public  notice.  The  sensational  part  of 
the  incident  was  due  to  the  exaggerated  ac- 
counts given  by  the  agents  of  the  Propagan- 
da and  other  societies  of  the  future  triumphs 
of  Rome  in  this  new  field  of  action,  and  to 
the  political  advantage  which  the  government 
of  Napoleon  III.  tried  to  derive  from  it. 
Monsieur  Boure,  the  ambassador  at  that  time 
in  Turkey,  greatly  favored  the  movement, 
while  some  of  the  consular  agents,  overstep- 
ping their  instructions,  held  out  to  the  Bul- 
garian people  the  open  support  and  protec- 
tion of  the  French  Government  in  favor  of 
the  anticipated  converts:  "  C'est  ici,"  said 
one  of  those  zealous  agents,  "  C'est  ici  au 
consulat  de  France  que  la  nation  Bulgare  doit 
dorenavant  tourner  son  regard,  porter  ses 
plaintes  et  demander  protection  !" 

The  most  telling  argument  with  the  Bul- 
garian peasant  to  abjure  his  faith  was  not  the 
future  benefit  his  soul  would  derive  from 
the  change  nor  the  value  of  French  influence 
and  protection,  but  simply  the  prospect  of 
freeing  himself  from  all  future  Church  im- 
positions, and  having  his  children  educated 
at  the  schools  of  the  Propaganda  free  of 
cost.  These  conditions  were  very  enticing, 
and  some  thousands,  yielding  to  the  further 
influence  of  a  few  of  their  superiors  who  had 
declared  themselves  Uniates,  blindly  fol- 
lowed these  as  sheep  following  their  shep- 
herd in  search  of  food.  They  knew  nothing 
of  the  dogmatic  side  of  the  question,  and 
cared  not  to  inquire.  The  name  of  the  Pope 
was  substituted  for  that  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  ;  the  ignorant  Greek  or  Bul- 
garian priests  were  superseded  by  Polish 
preachers  well  versed  in  the  Bulgarian 
tongue,  whose  sermons  were  composed  with 
a  view  to  impressing  the  people  with  a  sense 
of  the  material  rather  than  the  spiritual  ben- 
,  efits  to  be  derived  from  their  apostasy.  The 
proselytizing  centres  were  Adrianople,  Mon- 
astir,  and  Salonika,  where  large  establish- 
ments belonging  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Soci- 
eties undertook  the  work  of  conversion  in  a 
very  zealous  manner,and  established  branches 


in  places  of  smaller  importance  in  order  to 
give  more  weight  to  the  affair  and  increase 
the  confidence  of  the  Bulgarians  in  its  stabil- 
ity. A  Bulgarian  monk,  the  best  that  could 
be  got,  was  pounced  upon  by  the  Fathers  and 
sent  to  Rome  to  be  consecrated  primate  of 
the  Uniates.  This  individual,  unprepossess- 
ing in  appearance  and  utterly  ignorant  and 
stupid,  remained  at  Rome  in  order  to  receive 
the  homage  due  to  him  as  the  future  primate 
of  the  Uniates,  and  then  returned  to  Bulgaria, 
where  every  effort  was  made  by  the  agents 
of  the  Propaganda  to  give  importance  to  the 
event  and  establish  the  authority  of  the  new 
primate.  The  poor  Bulgarian  Uniates,  close- 
ly watched  and  pressed  on  both  sides  by  the 
Greeks  and  the  Bulgarians,  found  it  very 
hard  to  stand  their  ground.  They  began  to 
show  signs  of  laxity  of  zeal,  and  gradually 
dropped  out  of  the  newly-formed  flock.  This 
re-action  took  a  very  decided  turn  after  the 
formation  of  the  Bulgarian  national  church, 
when  the  converts  en  bloc  returned  to  it,  leav- 
ing a  few  of  the  faithful  to  occupy  the 
benches  of  the  deserted  churches,  and  some 
orphans  and  beggars  to  people  the  schools  at- 
tached to  them. 

Thus  began  and  ended  an  affair  which  was 
nothing  but  a  joke  to  those  who  were  on  the 
spot  and  behind  the  scenes  ;  while  the  Cath- 
olic world,  judging  from  all  the  wild  tales  of 
the  press  on  the  subject,  seemed  to  lose  their 
reason  over  it  to  the  extent  of  exciting  the 
curiosity  of  some  governments  and  greatly 
alarming  others,  until  the  thing  died  out,  to 
make  room  for  more  important  matters. 

However  successful  the  work  of  conver- 
sion may  be  in  the  East  when  it  is  carried  on 
(as  with  the  Romish  Church)  with  the  object 
of  entirely  denationalizing  a  community  and 
absorbing  it  into  the  proselytizing  church,  it 
will  prove  a  failure  in  the  long  run.  In  the 
case  of  the  United  or  Catholic  Armenians, 
one  sees  another  instance  of  the  tendency  of 
all  the  subject  races  of  the  Porte  whenever  a 
question  of  religion  or  political  liberty  is 
raised ;  it  is  to  the  West  that  one  and  all 
look  for  the  settlement  of  these  questions,  for 
support,  and  for  protection.  European  in- 
terference has  been  systematically  imposed 
upon  the  Porte,  and  has  obtained  ascendancy 
over  it  in  proportion  as  the  Turk  has  become 
weak  and  incapable  of  resistance. 

The  Armenian  nation  seems  to  have  re- 
mained united  and  at  peace  with  the  Church 
of  its  adoption  until  the  year  1587,  when 
Pope  Sixtus  sent  the  Bishop  of  Sidon  as  am- 
bassador to  the  Armenian  Melkhites,  Jaco- 
bites, and  Chaldean  communities,  to  recover, 
them  from  their  heresy  and  establish  papal 
authority  over  them  ;  but  the  utmost  the 
legate  obtained  at  the  time  was  the  consent 
of  the  Armenian  Patriarch  of  Cilicia  to  sign 
a  confession  of  the  Catholic  faith  according  to 
the  statutes  of  the  Council  of  Florence.  In 
the  meanwhile  numerous  missionaries  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  and  others 
had  settled  in  the  country  with  the  object  of 
carrying  on  the  work  of  conversion.  It  was 
one  of  these,  a  Jesuit,  who,  a  century  later, 
converted  Mechitar,  the  illustrious  founder 
of  the  United  Armenian  community,  which 
now  numbers  over  40,000  souls.  Mechitar 
united  in  his  person  the  qualities  of  the  the- 
ologian, the  scholar,  and  the  patriot.  Yield- 
ing to  persuasion,  he  adopted  the  Catholic 
creed  and  directed  all  his  energies  to  propa- 
gating it  among  his  countrymen.  His  ideas 
were,  however,  those  of  an  enlightened  man 
who  wished  to  combine  conversion  with 
mental  development  and  liberal  ideas  based 
upon  the  sound  foundation  of  separating  the 
civil  from  the  religious  rights,  founding  a 
Church,  Catholic  in  faith,  but  Armenian  in 
nationality,  with  a  constitution  free  from  the 
direct  control  and  interference  of  the  See  of 
Rome.  It  is  impossible  to  say  how  far  the 
project  of  the  intrepid  convert  was  feasible  ; 
his  enterprise  met  with  very  decided  oppo- 
sition from  the  head  of  the  propaganda, 
whose  efforts  were  directed  with  fanatical 


tenacity  and  ardor  towards  denationalizing 
and  Latinizing  the  new  converts.  Thus  the 
community  in  its  very  origin  found  itself  di- 
vided into  two  branches — the  liberal,  profess- 
ing the  views  of  Mechitar,  proud  of  the  name 
of  Armenian,  and  desirous  of  promoting  the 
interests  of  their  fatherland  ;  and  the  Ultra- 
montanes,  bigoted  and  holding  Rome  as  the 
sole  pivot  on  which  their  social,  moral,  and 
religious  existence  turned.  These  divisions 
soon  caused  dissensions,  and  Mechitar,  find- 
ing the  opposition  of  the  Fathers  too  strong 
for  him  in  his  native  land,  left  it  and  went  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  hoped  to  find  more 
liberty  and  a  more  extended  field  for  action. 
Here,  also,  bitter  disappointment  awaited 
him,  for  he  found  the  pressure  of  the  Euro- 
pean Fathers  put  upon  the  new  Church  ; 
mild  persuasion  and  exhortation  were  set 
aside  and  an  earnest  policy  of  intolerance  and 
exclusiveness  was  preached  to  the  new-com- 
munity, forbidding  its  members  to  enter  the 
churches  of  their  fathers,  which  were  repre- 
sented as  "  sanctuaries  of  the  devil,"  holding 
its  liturgy  up  to  execration,  and  refusing  ab- 
solution to  those  unwilling  to  submit  to  these 
severe  doctrines.  This  system  of  intolerance 
succeeded  so  well  with  the  retrograde  party 
as  to  widen  the  breach  already  separating  it 
from  the  liberal,  and  sowed  at  the  same  tune 
the  seeds  of  that  mortal  hatred  between  the 
United  and  the  Gregorian  Armenians  that 
has  more  than  once  well-nigh  caused  their 
common  destruction.  At  this  stage,  while 
party  dissensions  rendered  union  among  the 
Armenian  Catholics  impossible,  the  work  of 
proselytism  marched  on,  until  the  Gregori- 
ans,  alarmed  at  its  rapid  progress,  rose  in  a 
body,  and  by  means  of  hypocrisy  and  in- 
trigue, headed  by  their  uncompromising 
patriarch  Ephraim,  obtained  a  firman  from 
the  Porte  ordering  the  banishment  of  all  the 
Armenian  Catholics  from  Constantinople. 
Thus  the  sparks  of  persecution  kindled  by 
this  patriarch  soon  spread  into  a  general  con- 
flagration under  his  successor  Avidic,  who, 
faining  the  ear  and  support  of  the  Grand 
[ufti  Feizallah,  obtained  decree  after  decree 
for  the  persecution,  confiscation,  and  expa- 
triation of  all  their  opponents  in  the  empire, 
including  the  Fathers.  The  blow  was  too 
strong,  and  the  sensation  it  created  too  great, 
for  it  to  be  passed  over  by  the  Western  pow- 
ers belonging  to  the  same  Church.  A  French 
ambassador  consequently  raised  his  voice  so 
loudly  and  effectively  at  the  Porte  as  to  have 
the  obnoxious  patriarch  expelled  and  exiled 
to  Chios  ;  the  ill-fated  dignitary,  however, 
was  not  allowed  to  expiate  his  evil-doing 
in  peace  and  solitude,  but,  waylaid,  it  is  be- 
lieved, by  some  equally  unchristian  Jesuit 
Fathers,  he  was  kidnapped  and  taken  to  the 
Isle  of  St.  Margaret,  where  he  died  the  death 
of  a  martyr. 

The  Porte,  in  its  desire  to  right  the  wronged, 
felt  ill-requited  by  this  act.  The  abduction 
of  the  Patriarch,  together  with  other  griev- 
ances, magnified  by  the  Gregorians,  increased 
its  discontent,  and,  casting  its  mask  of  recon- 
ciliation aside,  it  became  the  open  and  di- 
rect persecutor  of  the  suspected  community. 
The  Jesuits'  house  at  Galata  was  put  under 
surveillance,  the  Armenian  printing  estab- 
lishment was  closed,  and  proselytism  was 
forbidden  on  pain  of  exile.  A  Hatti  ordered 
the  arrest  of  all  the  Armenian  adherents  of 
the  Romish  Church.  What  remained  of  the 
community  continued  in  hiding,  awaiting  a 
favorable  time  for  its  reappearance.  Mechi- 
tar himself,  suspected,  distrusted,  and  dis- 
liked by  all  parties  save  his  own,  fled  from 
Constantinople,  and,  after  many  vicissitudes 
and  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  found  a  mon- 
astery at  Medon,  finally  succeeded  in  doing 
so  in  the  Isle  of  St.  Lazarus,  granted  to  him 
by  the  republic  of  Venice.  The  monastery 
he  there  founded  was  of  the  order  of  St.  Best- 
edict,  and  was  later  on  approved  of  by  a  bull 
of  Clement  XI.  In  this  quiet  refuge  the 
learned  monk  established  his  order,  which 
took  the  name  of  Mechitarists  after  him,  and 


78 


THE   PEOPLE  OF   TURKEY. 


has  become  the  college,  not  of  orthodox 
Catholicism,  as  understood  and  practised  by 
the  Latinized  converts,  but  of  learning,  pa- 
triotism, and  liberal  views  and  ideas  in  relig- 
ious matters.  Scarcely  had  the  Uniteo.  Ar-  ! 
menians  recovered  from  the  shock  of  this  | 
persecution  than  they  were  again,  in  1759,  , 
subjected  to  a  fresh  one  set  on  foot  as  before 
by  the  Gregorians,  who  forced  upon  them 
religious  forms  repulsive  to  them,  backed  by 
the  active  support  of  the  Porte.  But  the 
most  critical  moment  for  the  very  existence 
of  the  community,  including  a  considerable 
proportion  of  Franks,  was  the  time  of  the 
battle  of  Navarino.  All  the  ill-humor  and 
exasperation  of  the  Turks  fell  upon  the  un- 
fortunate Armenian  Catholics,  who,  repre- 
lented  to  the  credulous  Turks  as  traitors  and 
spies  of  the  Franks,  were  treated  according- 
ly, and  persecution  and  exile,  ruin  and 
death,  were  once  more  their  lot.  The  prin- 
cipal actors  in  this  last  were  an  obscure 
Bheikh  who  had  a  tekke  at  Stamboul,  and 
who  by  some  freak  of  fortune  had  risen  to 
the  rank  of  Kadi  Asker,  becoming  far  famed 
as  Khalet  Effendi,  and  an  individual,  who 
was  pipe-bearer  in  the  Duz-Oglou  family, 
one  of  the  wealthiest  of  the  United  Armenian 
families. 

The  Porte  declared  that  it  recognized  only 
one  Armenian  nation  and  one  Armenian  re- 
ligion, and  invited  all  schismatics  to  abjure 
their  apostasy  and  return  to  the  bosom  of 
their  own  church  and  nation,  on  which  con- 
ditions they  could  alone  be  pardoned.     This 
■was  the  climax  of  the  evils  and  sufferings  of 
the  United   Armenians.     The  Governments 
of  Western  Europe,  indignant  at  this  rigor- 
ous treatment  and  the  miseries  it  brought 
upon  an  unfortunate  community,  took  up  its 
cause,  and  after  a  prolonged  dispute  between 
the  French  Government  and  the  Porte,  the 
determined  conduct  of  the  representative  of 
the  former  power    triumphed   over  the  in- 
trigues of  the  Gregorian  Armenians  and  the 
ill-will  and  cruelty  of  the  Porte  ;  the  exiles 
■were  recalled,  their  property  restored,  and 
they  were  recognized  as  a  separate  commu- 
nity under  a  patriarch  of  their  own.     We 
need  not  follow  all  the  difficulties  and  com- 
plications that  had  to  be  overcome  before  these 
salutary  results  could  be  obtained.  Since  that 
epoch  this  community  was  formed  into  a 
separate  body,  and  owing  Us  welfare,  secu- 
rity, and  subsequent  prosperity  to  the  pro- 
tection of  France  has  enjoyed  in  peace  the 
same  rights  and  privileges  as  the  Gregorians. 
These  privileges  were  further  granted  by  the 
Porte  under  the  same  pressure  to  the  other 
Catholic  communities.     The  grant  of  these 
concessions   constituted   France    the  moral 
supporter  and  religious  protector  of  all  the 
Catholics  of  the  East,  and  for  some  years 
French  influence  in  favor  of  the  Catholic  ray- 
ahs  was  supreme  at  the  Porte. 
In  1831  the  community  began  once  more  to 
consolidate  itself  by  the  scattered  members 
returning  to  their  homes  and  re-assuming  the 
ordinary  business  of  life.  Much  had  been  done 
in  their  favor,  but  much  remained  to  be  done 
by  the  community  itself.     The  first  step  was 
to  frame  a  general  assembly,  composed  of 
representatives  of  the  various  classes  of  the 
community  by  whom  the  national  interests 
were  discussed  and  debated  upon  with  much 
freedom.     The  result  was  the  election  of  a 
president  who  was  confirmed  by  the  Porte, 
and  invested  with  temporal  authority  alone. 
The  spiritual  power  was  conferred  on  a  pri- 
mate appointed  by  the  Pope.     This  measure 
was  adopted  in  the  hope  of  preventing  one 
authority  from  encroaching  upon  the  other  ; 
the  patriarch's   seal  was  divided  into  three 
parts,  which  were  intrusted  respectively  to 
the  patriarch,  the  primate,  and  the  president 
of  the  council.     Other  measures  were  also 
adopted  which  established  the  interests  and 
influence  of  the  Church  on  a  solid  basis,  in- 
creased the  privileges  of  the  community  at 
large,  and  greatly  heightened  its   prestige. 
But  dissensions  and  jealousies  crept  in,  de- 


stroyed the  passing  dignity  of  the  Church, 
and  brought  it  to  the  low  level  of  its  adher- 
ents, making  it  a  centre  of  bigotry  and  in- 
tolerance on  one  side  and  of  struggling  efforts 
for  enlightenment  and  emancipation  on  the 
other. 

Mechitar's  views  and  principles  are  held  in 
increasing  veneration  by  the  liberal  and  pro- 
gressive Armenians,  who  believe  that  the 
future  prosperity  of  their  country  is  depend- 
ent on  them.  Imbued  with  these  ideas,  it  is 
not  astonishing  to  find  that  this  party  and 
that  of  the  Propaganda  and  Latinized  Arme- 
nians are  in  a  state  of  continual  contention, 
undermining  the  peace  and  prospects  of  the 
community. 

In  184G,  Father  Minassian,  a  Mechitarisi 
monk,  proposed  the  establishment  of  a  socie- 
ty for  the  reconciliation  of  the  two  divisions 
of  the  nation  with  the  view  of  the  furthering 
education  and  ultimate  political  emancipation 
of  the  Armenians.  The  Conservative  party, 
with  the  patriarch  at  its  head,  rejected  his 
plan,  which,  warmly  taken  up  by  the  Liberal 
(or  as  it  is  now  called  Anti-IIassounist)  party 
led  to  fresh  disputes  and  dissensions,  keep- 
ing this  community  for  years  in  a  continual 
state  of  religious  agitation  and  setting  fami- 
lies at  variance.  The  Anti-Hassounist  party 
comprises  some  of  the  most  wealthy  and  in- 
fluential families,  while  the  Hassounists,  on 
the  other  hand,  boast  of  the  influence  of  their 
patriarch,  the  approval  and  protection  of 
Rome,  and  the  assistance  and  co-operation  of 
the  Propaganda  ;  accordingly,  of  late  years, 
both  parties  have  sallied  forth  from  their  for- 
mer reserved  attitude  and  offered  to  the 
world  of  Constantinople  the  spectacle  of  a 
pitched  battle — one  side  armed  with  all  the 
power  that  spiritual  help  can  afford,  the  other 
bracing  itself  with  the  force  of  argument  and 
the  protection  and  favor  of  the  Porte. 

Hassoun  and  his  party  accepted  the  doctrine 
of  the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope,  and  committed 
their  spiritual  welfare  and  worldly  concerns 
into  the  keeping  of  the  mother  Church,  trust- 
ing to  her  maternal  care  for  unlimited  patron- 
age. TheAnti-Hassounists,  led  by  Kupelian, 
rebelled  against  this  despotic  arrangement, 
denied  the  Infallibility  and  the  right  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  to  interfere  in  the  social 
and  religious  organization  of  the  communi- 
ty ;  they  actually  went  so  far  as  to  break  out 
into  open  rebellion,  and,  supported  and  pro- 
tected by  Hossein  Aoni  Pasha  and  some  of 
his  colleagues,  denied  the  authority  of  the 
patriarch,  drove  his  adherents  out  of  the 
schools,  closed  the  churches,  and  sent  away 
•the  priests  under  his  control,  finally  effect- 
ing the  schism  which  lies  under  Papal  ex- 
communication, but  prospers  nevertheless, 
and  must  ultimately,  as  the  nation  advances, 
triumph  over  opposition  and  attain  equality, 
independent  of  the  powerful  and  absorbing 
influence  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

The  spiritual  authority  of  this  new  sect  is 
in  the  keeping  of  a  patriarch  whose  election 
by  the  community  is  confirmed  by  the  Porte. 
He  enjoys  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as 
the  patriarchs  of  the  other  communities. 
The  patriarch  of  the  United  Armenians  re- 
ceives a  stipend  of  5000  piastres  per  month, 
exclusive  of  the  salaries  of  the  officers  of 
his  chancery.  The  expenses  of  the  bairai, 
amounting  to  500  piastres,  are  defrayed  by 
the  community  and  furnished  by  a  propor- 
tionate tax  levied  by  the  National  Council. 
The  Ecclesiastical  Hierarchy  consists  of  the 
Patriarchs  of  Cilicia,  the  Primate  of  Con- 
stantinople, the  bishops,  and  the  monastic 
and  secular  clergy.  The  principal  see  is 
solely  supported  by  funds  provided  by  the 
Propaganda  of  Rome  and  the  ' '  ceuvres  des 
missions." 

The  priests  are  divided  into  Vartabieds,  or 
doctors,  and  derders,  or  ordinary  priests. 
Some  of  the  former  may  be  found  at  the 
head  of  small  churches,  aided  by  derders 
or  acolytes.  They  occupy  a  modest  posi- 
tion in  rich  families,  where  they  are  em- 
ployed as  religious  instructors  of  youth  and 


general  counsellors  of  the  family.  As  a 
class,  however,  their  voice  in  the  Church  is 
overruled  by  that  of  the  clergy  of  the  Propa- 
ganda. The  Vartabieds  carry  a  crosier  ;  no 
regular  stipend  is  allotted  to  them,  but  they 
derive  their  support  from  church  fees.  The 
regular  clergy  consists  of  Mechitarist  and 
Antonine  monks,  who  have  colleges  at  Ven- 
ice, Constantinople,  and  Mount  Lebanon. 

The  national  council  of  the  United  Ar- 
menians is  composed  of  twelve  lay  members 
called  Bairatlis ;  their  election  is  confirmed 
by  the  Porte.  They  are  unpaid,  and  their 
period  of  office  is  limited  to  two  years,  six 
retiring  and  six  resuming  office  annually. 
This  council  works  in  conjunction  with 
the  Patriarch  ;  it  regulates  all  matters  con- 
cerning the  civil  and  financial  affairs  of  the 
community  ;  it  is  the  arbitrator  and  judge  of 
all  disputes  among  the  United  Armenians. 
This  community  at  Constantinople  alone 
numbers  about  20,000  souls,  forming  seven 
parishes  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

In  Pera,  annexed  to  the  church  of  St. 
John  Chrysostom,  they  possess  an  infirmary 
for  the  poor  and  a  lunatic  asylum  ;  each 
parish  has  a  primary  school,  and  some  insti- 
tutes for  female  education  exists.  One  of 
these,  founded  in  1850  by  the  family  of 
Duz-Oglou,  is  conducted  by  a  French  lady 
and  placed  under  French  control  ;  the  in- 
struction afforded  is  in  the  French  and  Ar- 
menian languages. 

The  unfortunate  duality  ever  present  in 
the  Church  makes  itself  felt  in  the  educa- 
tional department  as  well,  and  greatly  im- 
pedes its  progress.  The  Mechitarist  Fathers 
of  St.  Lazarus  include  in  the  religious  and 
literary  instruction  given  in  their  schools  the 
records  of  past  Armenian  glory,  inculcate  a 
love  of  country,  teach  its  language,  and  ren- 
der its  illustrious  authors  familiar  to  the  ris- 
ing generation ;  the  current  language  in 
their  institution  is  the  Armenian.  The  oppo- 
sition abuse  and  ridicule  all  that  is  Arme- 
nian, and  replace  the  native  language  by 
Latin  and  Italian,  or  French  ;  their  princi- 
ple is,  "Let  nationality  perish  rather  than 
doctrine,  the  holy  pulpit  was  never  estab- 
lished to  teach  patriotism,  but  gospel  truth." 
The  tutelar  saints  of  the  Armenians,  treated 
with  the  same  disrespect,  are  replaced  by 
saints  from  the  Roman  calendar. 

In  character  and  disposition  the  United 
Armenians  are  peaceable,  regular  in  their 
habits,  industrious,  and  fond  of  amassing 
wealth  ;  parsimonious  and  even  miserly  in 
their  ideas,  the  love  of  ostentation  and 
good-feeding  has  yet  a  powerful  effect  upon 
their  purse-strings.  They  are,  however,  con- 
siderably in  advance  of  the  Gregorian  Arme- 
nians. The  youth  of  the  better  classes  are 
for  the  most  part  conversant  with  European 
languages  and  the  external  forms  of  good  so- 
ciety, affect  European  manners,  and  profess 
liberal  views.  Owing  to  the  higher  educa- 
tional privileges  they  enjoy,  they  have  made 
more  progress  in  the  arts  and  professions  than 
the  Gregorian  Armenians.  The  school  of 
Mechitar  has  produced  scholars  of  consider- 
able merit,  but  the  vocation  they  seem  spe- 
cially made  for  is  that  of  banking.  In  all  ca- 
reers their  success  has  been  signal.  There 
was  a  time  when  the  increasing  wealth  and 
prosperity  of  the  United  Armenians  was  the 
cause  of  much  envy  and  jealousy,  when  no 
European  banking  houses  existed  in  Turkey, 
and  the  financial  affairs  of  the  Ottomans  wore 
left  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Armenian 
bankers,  who  directed  the  mint  and  regulated 
the  finances  of  the  government  and  of  the 
Pashas.  On  the  change  of  system,  the  ruin 
of  the  State  as  well  as  that  of  most  of  these 
families,  once  so  wealthy,  became  inevitable. 
Should  Armenia,  however,  eventually  be- 
come a  principality,  should  the  Mechitarist 
school  triumph  over  sectarian  susceptibilities, 
and  an  understanding  be  arrived  at  leading  to 
a  national  union  between  the  United  and  tlu 
Gregorian  Armenians,  a  considerable  number 
of  wealthy,  intelligent,  and  earnest  men,  ft 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   TURKEY. 


fc)  be  placed  at  the  head  of  a  nation,  and  able  I  nlans,  detesting  the  Ottoman  rule,  are  ready 

n  '  to  cast  themselves  into  the  arms  of  any 
power  that  will  offer  them  protection  and 
guarantee  their  future  emancipation.  The 
turning-point  reached,  Russia  or  England 
will  have  to  face  them  and  listen  to  their 


to  control  it  with  wisdom,  prudence,  and 
moderation,  will  not  be  wanting  in  both 
branches  of  this  widely  scattered  nation. 
The  critical  moment  in  the  destinies  of  this 
country  has,  I  believe,  arrived.     The  Arme- 


79 


claims.  If  their  cause  is  taken  up  in  good 
time  they  will  be  saved  ;  and  the  name  and 
prestige  of  England,  already  pretty  widely 
spread  in  Armenia,  will  become  all-power- 
ful. 

THE    END. 


BEDOUIN  TRIBES  OF  THE  EUPHRATES. 

BEDOUIN  TRIBES  OF  THE  EUPHRATES.  By  Lady  Anne  Blunt.  Edited,  with  a  Preface 
and  some  Account  of  the  Arabs  and  their  Horses,  by  W.  S.  B.  Map  and  Sketches  by  the 
Author.      8vo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 


The  book  is  a  fascinating  one ;  the  more  so  because  the  author, 
who  has  a  wholesome  love  of  the  outer  air  and  a  healthy  woman's 
carelessness  of  physical  comfort,  nowhere  wearies  her  readers  with 
querulous  complainings ;  indeed,  she  appears  from  first  to  last  to  have 
retained  her  high  spirits  throughout  the  toilsome  journey,  and  keenly 
to  have  enjoyed  each  day's  ride  upon  her  superb  mare  or  upon  her 
camel.  *  *  *  It  is  a  work  worthy  of  all  praise  for  simplicity,  directness 
of  purpose,  and  uniform  interest.  As  the  Lady  Anne  Blunt  and  her 
companion  were  the  first  European  travellers  who  ever  made  them- 
selves at  home  among  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  so  they  have  given  us  such 
an  account  of  the  strange  people  visited  as  to  leave  little  for  later  trav- 
ellers to  tell  concerning  them. — N.  Y.  Evening  Post. 

Lady  Anne  Blunt  is  entitled  by  descent  to  be  an  authoress,  since 
the  is  the  granddaughter  of  Lord  Byron.  Having  previously  explored 
the  Sahara  south  of  the  Atlas  range,  she  spent  last  winter  with  her 
husband  among  the  wandering  Arabs  of  the  Syrian  desert.  Admitted 
by  their  hosts  to  the  privileges  not  only  of  hospitality  but  of  sworn 
brotherhood,  the  travellers  lived  with  them  in  their  tents,  moved  with 
their  encampments,  and  were  even  spectators  of  some  of  their  feuds 
and  strifes. — Athenaeum,  London. 

A  picture  of  Oriental  life  which  bears  the'  marks  of  evident  truth- 
fulness, and  which  shows  how  much  nobility  there  is  in  the  Bedouin 
character.  Altogether  this  is  one  of  the  most  readable  and  instruct- 
ive books  we  have  met  with  in  a  long  time. — Congregationalist,  Bos- 
ton. 

A  rich  treat.  *  *  *  Aside  from  the  exciting  incidents  of  travel, 
admirably  told,  the  book  abounds  in  valuable  facts  pertaining  to  this 
interesting  people,  and  history  which  has  never  before  been  so  carefully 
and  honestly  told. — Chicago  Inter-  Orean. 

One  of  the  most  considerable  additions  that  we  have  had  to  the  lit- 
erature of  this  long-buried  region,  and  is  altogether  the  best  book  upon 
the  Arab  and  his  fleet  and  patient  steed. — Zioris  Herald,  Boston. 

We  can  give  but  a  faint  idea  of  the  varied  interest  of  this  book. 
It  has  matter  for  every  reader.  Here  are  humor,  adventure,  sport,  in- 
formation about  things  that  are  to  most  people  altogether  unfamiliar. 
— Saturday  Review,  London. 

It  pretends  to  no  great  erudition,  but  it  records  intelligent,  com- 
mon-sense observations  among  the  Bedouin  tribes,  for  making  which 
the  author  had  quite  unusual  opportunities  ;  as  well  as  an  excellent  ac- 
count of  the  general  condition  of  things,  social  and  political,  in  that 
hardly-governed  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire. — Sunday-School  Times, 
Philadelphia. 


Lady  Blunt  is  as  unconventional  in  her  language  and  her  ideas  as 
she  is  original  in  selecting  her  pleasures.  She  has  a  horror  of  mere 
sight-seeing,  and  neglects  man's  works  that  she  may  stud}'  man  him- 
self. She  is  perfectly  at  home  in  the  midst  of  the  desert. — Saturday 
Evening  Gazette,  Boston. 

A  charming  and  spirited  narrative  of  life  among  the  Bedouins. — 
Pall-Mali  Gazette,  London. 

The  most  fascinating,  the  freshest,  and  the  most  "  newsy  "  book  on 
the  Orient  we  have  had  in  a  long  time.  It  will  be  to  most  readers  an 
absolute  revelation  about  the  desert,  and  the  life  of  those  tribes  who 
seem  to  have  preserved  unbroken  the  civilization  of  the  days  of  Job 
and  Abraham.  *  *  *  The  book  is  a  model  of  lively  narrative  style, 
which  is  never  flippant ;  it  is  even  buoyant  to  the  extent  of  gayety. — ■ 
Hartford  Courant. 

The  book  has  been  edited  with  a  great  deal  of  ability  and  judg- 
ment. The  narrative  is  unpretentious  bnt  graphic,  and  the  descrip- 
tions involve  everything  which  the  reader  can  learn  of  these  interesting 
portions  of  the  world  without  visiting  them  himself.  *  *  *  — Buffalo 
Express. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  volumes  of  travel  that  have  come  from 
the  press  for  several  years  past,  and  it  cannot  fail  to  prove  popular. — 
Episcopal  Register',  Philadelphia. 

This  is  the  most  charming  book  of  travels  we  have  seen  in  many  a 
day.  It  is  clear  in  statement,  simple  in  style,  graphic  in  description, 
free  from  the  slightest  tone  of  exaggeration,  and  it  tells  us  about  a 
country  of  which  little  is  really  known,  and  of  peoples  in  whom  at  this 
time  the  deepest  interest  is  taken,  as  being  one  of  the  potent  factors  in 
the  insoluble  problem  of  Ottoman  rule. — Charleston  News. 

Lady  Anne  Blunt  is  a  charming  writer,  of  close  observation,  and 
her  descriptions  are  most  felicitous.  The  book  is  a  most  spirited  pict- 
ure of  Eastern  life. — N.  Y.  Commercial  Advertiser. 

There  is  not  a  dull  page  in  the  volume.  It  is  full  of  exciting  inci- 
dents and  adventures — not  of  the  common-place  sort,  such  as  might 
come  to  any  one  away  from  home,  but  incidents  and  adventures  as 
novel  as  the  country  they  visited  and  the  tribes  they  encountered.  Nor 
is  it  attractive  for  this  reason  alone.  The  reader  will  learn  a  great 
deal  about  the  political  status  of  the  tribes  of  the  desert,  of  their  social 
life,  their  domestic  habits,  their  commercial  resources,  their  religion, 
their  leaders,  and  their  laws ;  something  about  the  soil,  climate,  topog- 
raphy, and  history  of  the  desert,  and  much  that  is  both  instructive  and 
entertaining  about  the  genealogy,  qualities,  breeding,  and  treatment  of 
the  famous  Arabian  horse. — Albany  Journal. 


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